Mirad Grammar/Verbs

100% The Verb Stem thumb| Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the -er ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem+Infinitive Ending |- | yexer....to work || yex+er |- | poser....to (come to a) stop || pos+er |- | xer....to do || x+er |- | xwer....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)|| xw+er |} Verb Stem Formants A verb stem formant is a letter or group of letters at the end of a verb stem indicating: TYPE OF VERB: stative, causative, gestural, related to motion, communications, or mental states and activites CERTAIN TRAITS: active, passive, subject-oriented, patient-oriented, dynamic, intensive Stems of Verbs Having a Formant s creates intransitive stative verbs, i.e. verbs of being or becoming ser....to be aser....to become eser....to exist beser....to stay kyaser....to change x creates transitive verbs of action, doing, making, causation xer....to do agaxer....to magnify < aga....big uxer....to cause < ux....cause yiklaxer....to complicate < yikla....complex sanxer....to form < san....form b creates transitive verbs of gesturing or putting ber....to put < be....at yaber....to raise < yab....up yixber....to put to use, deploy < yix....use ikber....to fill < ik(a)....full abkyober....to affix < ab....on + kyo(a)....fixed p creates intransitive verbs of motion per....to go aper....to get on < a(b)....on uper....to come < u(b)....toward poper....to travel < po(p)....trip yaper....to rise, get up < ya(b)....up d creates transitive verbs of communication der....to say, tell gawder....to repeat < gaw-....re- kyider....to emphasize < kyi(a)....heavy afder....to authorize < af....permission lofivader....to disapprove < lo-....dis- + fi(a)....good + va....yes yevder....to judge < yev(a)....just vyader....to avow < vya(a)....true dr transitive verbs of writing drer....to write makdrer....to text < mak....electricity Miradrer....to write in Mirad < Mirad monsandrer....to ghostwrite < mon....dark + san....shape ajdindrer....to chronicle < aj....past....din....story = history abdrer....to inscribe < ab....on dye creates transitive verbs of reading dyeer....to read neddyeer....to skim < ned....surface seuxdyeer....to pronounce < seux....sound tepdyeer....to read minds < tep....mind teubobdyeer....to lipread < teubob....lip teuzdyeer....to read aloud < teuz....voice tuyibdyeer....to read palms < tuyib....palm zyedyeer....to peruse < zye....through t creates transitive verbs of mental states ter....to know teater....to see < tea(b)....eye tayoter....to feel < tayo(b)....skin tester....to understand < tes....meaning nazter....to value, to appreciate < naz....value tr creates transitive verbs of recognition trer....to be familiar with (a person) gawtrer....to recognize < gaw-....re- ijtrer....to get to know < ij....start yagtrer....to experience < yag(a)....long ty creates transitive know-how verbs tyer....to know (how to do something) daztyer....to know how to dance < daz....dance deuztyer....to know how to sing < deuz....song fiktyer....to master < fik(a)....perfect i creates transitive subject-oriented verbs bier....to take < bi....from tier....to find out < t-....know dier....to request < d-....say ifier....to enjoy < if....pleasure nier....to consume < n-....money nazier....to deserve < naz....value pier....to depart < p-.....go u creates transitive patient-directed verbs buer....to give < bu....to tuer....to inform < t-....know duer....to suggest < d-....say ifuer....to please < if....pleasure nuer....to supply < n-....money nazuer....to reward < naz....value puer....to arrive < p-....go ar, ir, ur creates transitive verbs built on tools, machines, and vehicles adoparer....to fire a gun < adopar....gun apaxlirer....to vacuum < apaxlir....vacuum cleaner drurer....to print < drur....printer Stems of Verbs Having No Formant A few verb stems ending in k, z, f, v, j, l, and r (other than the above tool/machine/vehicle verbs) have no formants in their base dictionary form. K-stem transitive verbs of risk: aker....to win eker...to play, risk oker....to lose yaker....to expect yeker....to try yoker....to be surprised yiker....to find it hard yuker....to find it easy Z-stem transitive verbs of art: dazer....to dance dyazer....to perform ballet dezer....to perform doldezer....to pantomime dizer....to clown around duzer....to play music domepduzer....to busk drezer....to create poetry dresyozer....to engrave druzer....to compose music doteuzer....to vote sizer....to paint imsizer....to fresco sazer....to sculpt tazer....to carve syozer....to engrave volzer....to color tujeazer....to dream tepeazer....to imagine F- and V-stem modal verbs: fer....to want afer....to have permission efer....to need ifer....to love iyfer....to like ofer....to be prohibited yafer....to be able yefer....to have to yeyfer....should yofer....to be unable yifer....to dare yufer....to fear yiver....have a right to yuver....to be supposed to L- and R-stem verbs baler....to press barer....to crush beler....to carry boler....to support biler....to obtain birer....to grab buler....to grant burer....to concede daler...to speak deler....do declare doler....to be silent diler....to request direr....to demand duler....to insist durer....to order The above verbs are transitive except doler. Stems Ending in j The following J-stem verbs are intransitive stative zero-formant verbs: J-stem verbs are intransitive verbs related to time activites: ijer....to begin ujer....to finish yijer....to open yujer....to close tijer....to be awake tujer....to sleep tajer....to be born tejer....to live tojer....to die All of the above j stems are intransitive static verbs and cannot be passivized. Verb stems ending in j, however, can take the active transitive dynamic formant b which can then be passivized with w. Or, they can take the intransitive dynamic formant p, which cannot be passivized. tojer....to die (intransitive automatic) tojper....to drop dead (intransitive dynamic) tojber....to kill (transitive dynamic) tojbwer....to be killed (transitive passive dynamic) There are two formants, l and r that act as intensifiers and can be applied to any stems except the L and R stems (like baler....to press): l (intensive verbs) fler....to yearn ( < fer....to want) ifler....to love ( < ifer....to love) gobler....to cut ( < gober....to subtract) ebler....to obstruct ( < eber....to get in the way of) ibler....to collect ( < iber....to receive) yabler....to hoist ( < yaber....to raise) buxler....to shove ( < buxer....to push) yujler....to lock ( < yujer....to close) r (more intensive verbs) frer....to crave ( < fer....to want) ifrer....to adore ( < ifer....to love) abbaxrer....to rub ( < abbaxer....to caress) abbyuxrer....to stomp on ( < abbyux....to touch on, impact) apaxrer....to scrub ( < apaxer....to wipe) byexrer....to thrash ( < byexer....to hit) buxrer....to drive ( < buxer....to push) yujrer....to slam shut ( < yujer....to close) Here are examples of J-stems that take the intensifying formants l and r, eg.: yujer....to close (intransitive automatic) yujler....to lock (intransitive automatic intensive) yujper....to come to a close (intransitive dynamic) yujprer....to slam shut (intransitive automatic very intensive) yujber....to close (transitive dynamic) yujbwer....to be closed (transitive passive dynamic) yujler....to lock (intransitive automatic intensive) yujbler....to lock (transitive dynamic intensive) yujbrer....to slam shut (transitive dynamic very intensive) yujbrwer....to be slammed shut (transitive dynamic very intensive passive) Altering Stems with the i or u Directional Formants Stems can sometimes be altered with the following directional formants: -i- (subject-oriented) -u- (patient-oriented) Examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs with i/u Formants |- ! Verb || Modification |- | rowspan=2|ber....to put || bier....to take |- || buer....to give |- | rowspan=2|ter....to know || tier....to find out |- || tuer....to inform |- | rowspan=2|trer....to be familiar with || trier....to become familiar with |- || truer....to familiarize, introduce |- | rowspan=2|tyer....to know how || tyier....to master |- || tyuer....to train |- | rowspan=2|taxer....to remember || taxier....to commit to memory |- || taxuer....to remind |- |rowspan=2| per....to go || pier....to leave |- || puer....to arrive |- | rowspan=2|xer....to do || xier....to result in |- || xuer....to affect |- | rowspan=2|buker....to hurt || bukier....to sustain an injury |- || bukuer....to inflict an injury |- | rowspan=2|ifer....to love || ifier....to enjoy |- || ifuer....to please |- | rowspan=2|der....to say || dier....to ask |- || duer....to suggest |- | rowspan=2|til....a drink || tilier....to take a drink |- || tiluer....to pour a drink |- | rowspan=2|tel....food || telier....to eat |- || teluer....to feed |- | rowspan=2|abbaun....cover || abbaunier....to take cover |- || abbaunuer....to provide cover |- | rowspan=2|abfin....advantage || abfinier....to take advantage of |- || abfinuer....to favor |- | rowspan=2|naz....value || nazier....to deserve |- || nazuer....to reward |} Intensifying Stems with the l and r Formants The following table shows how stems can be intensified in meaning with -l- and -r-: -l- (intense) -r- (more intense) Examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs with Intensifying Formants |- ! Normal !! Intense !! More Intense |- | baxer....to stir || baxler....to rustle || baxrer....to shake |- | yaber....to raise (trans.) || yabler....to elevate || yaprer....to hoist |- | yaper....to ascend (intrans.)|| yapler....to climb|| yaprer....to scramble up |- | apaxer....to wipe || apaxler....to sweep || apaxrer....to scrub |- | byexer....to strike ||byexler....to trounce || byexrer....to thrash |} The intransitive zero-formant verbs whose stem ends in -k can take formants as well: aker....to win (transitive) akler....to vanquish, beat (transitive intense) akrer....to triumph (transitive more intense) biker....to care (transitive) bikier....to take care (transitive subject-oriented) bikuer....to care for (transitive patient-oriented) bikuwer....to be cared for (transitive patient-oriented passive) yeker....to try (transitive) yekler....to strive (transitive intensive) yekrer....to struggle (transitive more intensive) yekier....to undertake (transitive subject-oriented) yekuer....to challenge (transitive patient-oriented) yekuwer....to be challenged (transitive patient-oriented passive) bakser....to get healthy, heal (intransitve) bakxer....to make healthy, heal (transitive) bakxwer....to be healed (transitive passive) The Passivizing Formant w Verb stems ending in j, s, or p are invariably intransitive and cannot be made passive. All other verb stems, except doler (to be silent), can be made passive with the addition of w. The passifying w is always the last formant of any stem. saxer....to make > saxwer....to be made baler....to press > balwer....to be pressed yaker....to expect > yakwer....to be expected An Example of Formants Combined The zero-formant verb stems in -f- and -v- are modal verbs and these can take a combination of additional formants, eg.: ifer....to love ifler....to have affection for ifrer....to adore ifier....to enjoy, to take pleasure in ifuer....to please, to give pleasure to ifluer....to delight ifruer....to ravish ifruwer....to be ravished ifxer....to gratify, to divert ifser....to have fun ifwer....to be loved ifrwer....to be adored fer....to want fler....to yearn for frer....to crave fruer....fill with a craving for yufer....to fear yufler....to dread yufrer....to tremble in fear of yufruer....to frighten yufruwer....to be frightened yufxer....to scare yufxwer....to be scared yiver....to have the right to yivser....to become free yivxer....to free, to liberate yivxwer....to be freed yafer....to be able yafxer....to enable yafxwer....to be enabled yafuer....to empower yafluer....to coerce yafier....to take power yaflier....to grab power ofer....to lack permission to ofxer....to prohibit ofxwer....to be prohibited ifruwer....to be ravished efxwer....to be necessitated Verb Categories Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories, which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment) Morphological Categories Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories: 2 states: finite, non-finite 4 tenses: present, past, future, atemporal1 5 aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential 2 voices: active, passive 2 moods: indicative, hypothetical Note 1: The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, Pu! is the imperative of the verb per....to go. It means Go! and is atemporal. The -u ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker. In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are, he is, we are, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | I am || at se |- !row=1| 2nd | you are || et se |- !row=1| 3rd | he/she is || it se |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | we are || yat se |- !row=1| 2nd | you (pl.) are || yet se |- !row=1| 3rd | they are || yit se |} This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. Lexical Categories In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. + Verb Lexical Categories Stative Dynamic ser....to be xer....to do Intransitive Transitive agaser....to grow large agaxer....to magnify Subject-directed Patient-directed bier....to take buer....to give Reflexive Non-reflexive utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself) vyixer....to wash Inchoative Causative tujper....fall asleep tujber....put to sleep Autonomous Dynamic yijer....to open (by itself) yijber....to (make it) open Reciprocal Non-reciprocal hyuittujber....to kill one another tujber....to kill Gestural Locomotive baser....to stir, budge paser....to move Subject-oriented Object-oriented teetyiker....to be hard of hearing teetyikwer....to be hard to hear Non-finite Forms Non-finite verb forms are not conjugated for person or number cannot form a predicate and do not have a subject. There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er der....to say (imperfect active) tixayer....to have studied (perfect active), xwer....to be done (imperfect passive) xwayer....to have been done (perfect passive) gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en byasen....(the act of) standing (imperfect gerund) byasayen....(the act of) having stood (perfect gerund) participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a tejea....living (alive) (imperfect active) jeteaxwea....being watched (imperfect passive) twa....known (perfect passive) piya....departed (perfect active) Infinitives Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem. Very rarely a verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in ayer and awer, respectively. (For example: Tejayer boy ifawer nazase glo.....To have lived without having loved counts little.). {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitive || Stem !! Ending |- | agser....to grow || ags- || -er |- | igxer....to quicken || igx- || -er |- | per....to go || p- || -er |- | xwer....to happen, be done || x- || -wer |- | tejayer....to have lived || tej- || -ayer |- | ifawer....to have been loved || if- || -awer |} The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: + Active and Passive Infinitive Stems Aspect Active Voice Passive Voice Simple igxer....to quicken igxwer....to be quickened Perfect igxayer....to have quickened igxawer....to have been quickened In the above chart, the verb stem is igx- and the infinitive marker is -er; the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; the simple aspect passive voice marker is w; the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-; the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen (= to be done). The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. Gerunds The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball. The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive): + Gerund Formation Aspect Voice Ending Example Simple Active -en agaxen....magnifiying, magnification Simple Passive -wen agaxwen....being magnified Perfect Active -ayen byekxayen....having cured Perfect Passive -awen byekxawen....having been cured Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form. Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. Some verbs have a special gerundive form ending in -eyn, which refers to a single action: xen....doing vs. xeyn....deed axlen....acting vs. axleyn....action abbalen....applying vs. abbaleyn....application Verbs having an -eyn form are lexical forms listed in the dictionary. Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.: zyegxer....to puncture  ->  zyegxun....a puncture zyeuber....to transmit  ->  zyeubun....a broadcast deuzer....to sing  ->  deuzun....a song These words are listed in the dictionary and lexical forms, not conjugated forms. Some examples of gerund usage: (sanxer....to form)    Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation) of this star took millions of years. (deuzer....to sing)    Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful. (poper....to travel)    Popen se yika yex.....Traveling is hard work. (teeter....to hear)    Teetwen fiay se teskyia av dezuti.....Being heard well is important for actors. (teater....to see)    Teaten se vyatexen......Seeing is believing. (uper....to come)    His se ha jeb bi Upen.....This is the season of Advent (coming). (tadier....to get married)    Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention. (aker....to win)    At voy ta ita akayen hua nazuun.....I did not know about his having won that prize. Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money. Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option. Participles Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive). The aspect markers per voice are: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | -ea- || tejea....living |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | wea || xwea....happening, being done |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | -ya || pya....gone (< pyaa1) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | -wa || xwa....done (< xwaa1) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | -oa || tojoa....about to die |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | -woa || dodelwoa....about to be announced |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | -ua || tojbua....lethal |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | -wua || opoxwua....unstoppable |} 1: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a. Note 1: The perfect active particple ending in -ya is used only for intransitive verbs like per (to go). He is gone. is expressed by Wit se pya. Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill). More about this in a later section. Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad. By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (oboxyea). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous. Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea. Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples: Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay.....She entered the room singing. Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left. Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples: tiluwa....drinkable → tiluwan....potability tojbua....lethal → tojbuan....lethality mansea....shining → he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing aakaxyea....inventive → aakaxyean....inventiveness Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: xwa....done → xwas....what is done, a happening xwa....done → xwasi....happenings, deeds otwa....unknown → otwas....what is not known, a mystery osexea....destroying → osexeas....a destroyer tojbua....lethal → tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing tojboa....moribund → tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases tejea....living → tejeat....a living person tejea....living → tejeasi....living things There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut. sexut....builder nuut....supplier tojbut....killer ifut....lover akuti....winners Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner. Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, inanimate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us. yuxus....aid (a thing that helps) byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard) paxus....motive (a thing that moves one) jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before) The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. Finite Forms thumb| In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: TENSES present past future atemporal MOODS indicative hypothetical ASPECTS simple progressive perfect imminent potential VOICES active passive reflexive reciprocal Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc. Moods There are two moods in Mirad: indicative hypothetical. Indicative Mood The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go. The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively. Hypothetical Mood Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u. a command , i.e. the imperative (Go!) a wish or suggestion, i.e. the hortative or jussive (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!) an unrealized situation, i.e. the subjunctive (It is important that you be early.) an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the conditional (If I were rich, I would be happy.) Aspects There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. the simple aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. the progressive aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey the perfective aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay the imminent aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy the potential aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy The Simple Aspect Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: Present with e Past with a Future with o. An atemporal verb ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: a conditional like I would go (if...) an imperative like Go! a hortative like Let's go! a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go. Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined: + Simple Active Conjugation of Per Mood Tense Aspect Voice Instantiation Verb per Indicative Present Simple Active At pe....I go Indicative Past Simple Active At pa....I went Indicative Future Simple Active At po....I will go Hypothetical Atemporal Simple Active ConditionalAt pu....I would go Hortative/Optative/JussiveVan yat pu!....Let's go! ImperativePu tam!....Go home! SubjunctiveSe efwa van et pu.....It is necessary that you go. Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later. Examples: At yexe be tam. ....I work at home. Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store. Ha amur yuzpe ha imer.....The moon goes around the earth. The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. Examples: Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday. At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago. His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today. The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future. Examples: Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year. Hua kaxon ujako. ....That solution will work. At so him hoj et upo.....I will be here when you (will) come.1 Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, He said he was coming.. In Mirad, this would be expressed as He said he will come.). The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive. Examples: Upu him!....Come here! (imperative) Von upu! ....Don't come! (negative imperative) Ha edweb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (conditional) Ven at su et, at dolu. ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (conditional) Van yeyt ujaku be yeyta yexneadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (hortative) Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (jussive) Se teskyia van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (subjunctive) Se teskyia von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (negative subjunctive) Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!. If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a conditional predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go.. If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a conditional clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man.. If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a hortative wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a jussive suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!. Voices Mirad has four voices: Active Passive Reflexive Reciprocal. Active Voice The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event. Passive Voice A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa). The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! ActiveExample !! Passive !! PassiveExample |- !row=1| Infinitive | xerto do || At fe xer fi.I want to do well. || xwerto be done || Ese hyos xwer.There is nothing to be done. |- !row=1| Present Participle | sexeaconstructing || Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...The firm constructing this building...|| sexweabeing constructed || His se sexewa.This is under construction. |- !row=1| Present | xedo/does ||At xe fi be tixam.I do well in school. || xweis done || Huyenasi hoj xwe.Such things are never done. |- !row=1| Past Participle | xaahaving done || Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...She, having done all her work,... ||xwadone || Hyas se xwa.Everything is done. |- !row=1| Past | tojbakilled || Duhot tojba hwut?Who killed that guy? || tojbwawas killed || Duhoj wit tojbwa?When was he killed? |- !row=1| Hypothetical | bakxuheal || Bakxu at!Heal me! || bakxwube healed || Van iyt bakxwu.May she be healed. |} Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.) Notice how this works with yijer (to open): Ha mes yija.....The door opened (by itself). (medio-passive) Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive) Yijbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active) Ha mes yijbwa.....The door was opened (by someone). (passive) Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending ya, but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: per....to go -> pya....gone tajer....to be born -> tajya....born (ex.Jesus tajya bi Marya.'....Jesus, born of Mary) tojer....to die -> tojya....dead loteaser....to disappear -> loteasya....disappeared (ex. Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.....the disappeared persons in Argentina.) Reflexive Voice A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example: tojber....to kill → uttojber....to kill oneself vyilxer....to wash → utvyilxer....to wash up teater....to see → utteater....to see oneself yabler....to lift → utyabler....to lift oneself → Utyablu!....Lift yourself up! trer....to know → uttrer....to know oneself → Uttru!....Know thyself! Reciprocal Voice A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example: tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another vyilxer....to wash → hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another teater....to see → hyuitteater....to see one another Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example: Yit vyilxa yut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves). Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another. The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one. Aspects Revisited Mirad verbs have the following aspects: Simple -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. Progressive -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. Perfect -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. Immininent -- this describes an action or state about to happen. Potential -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible. The Simple Aspect The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.). {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | At xe....I do || Has xwe....It is done |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | At xa....I did || Has xwa....It was done |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | At xo....I will do || Has xwo....It will be done |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | At xu....I would do1 || Has xwu....It would be done |} 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = conditional. The Progressive Aspect The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | at xeye....I am doing || Has xewe....it is being done |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | at xeya....I was doing || Has xewa....it was being done |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | at xeyo....I am going to be doing || Has xewo....it will be happening |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | at xeyu....I would be doing || Has xewu....it would be happening |} The Perfect Aspect The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | At xaye....I have done || Has xawe....It has been done |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | At xaya....I had done || Has xawa....It had been done |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |At xayo....I will have done || Has xawo....It will have been done |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | At xayu....I would have done || Has xawu....It would have been done |} The Imminent Aspect The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | At xoye....I am about to do || Has xowe....It is about to be done |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | At xoya....I was about to do || Has xowa....It was about to be done |} The Potential Aspect The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | At xuye....I am to do || Has xuwe....It is to be done, it is doable |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | At xuya....I was to do || Has xuwa....It was to be done, it was doable |} Verb Conjugation Chart The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. + Verb Conjugation Chart State Mood Aspect Tense Voice ActivePassiveFinite Indicative Simple Present xe doesxweis done, happens Past xa didxwawas done, happened Future xo will doxwowill be done, will happen Hypothetical xu would do, do!xwuwould be done, would happen, be done! Indicative Progressive Present xeyeis doingxeweis being done, is happening Past xeya was doingxewawas doing, was happening Future xeyowill be doingxewowill be happening Hypothetical xeyu would be doingbe doing!xewuwould be happeningIndicative Perfect Present xaye has donexawe has been done, has happened Past xaya had donexawahad been done, had happened Future xayo will have donexawo will have been done, will have happened Hypothetical xayu would have donexawuwould have been done, would have happened Indicative Imminent Present xoye is about to doxoweis about to be done, is about to happen Past xoyawas to be done xowawas to be done, was to happenPotential Present xuyeis supposed to do xuwe is supposed to happen Past xuya was supposed to doxuwawas supposed to be done, was supposed to happenInfinitive Simple xerto doxwerto be done, to happen Perfect xayerto have donexawerto have been done, to have happendParticiple Progressive xeadoing xewabeing done, happening Perfect xya having donexwadone, happened Imminent xoa about to doxowaabout to happen Potential xuabound to do xuwadoableGerund Simple xen doingxwen being done, happening, event Perfect xayenhaving donexawenhaving happened Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms. An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya. Negative Forms All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb voy (not, 'nt, doesn't, don't). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von (don't, let not, lest). voy....not At voy te.....I don't know. (indicative) Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative) At voy xu hus.....I would not do that. (conditional) von....Let's not, don't, let it not Von mamilu.....Let it not rain. (subjunctive) Von yat fuyaku.....Let us not despair. (jussive) Von pu!....Don't go. (imperative) Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix o- (un-, non-). tosea....feeling -> otosea....unfeeling xwa....done -> oxwa....undone teliwa....eaten -> oteliwa....uneaten tejen....living -> otejen....not living buen....giving -> obuen....not giving buer....to give -> obuer....not to give ter....to know => oter....not to know, i.e. to ignore Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word voy (not), eg: voy tea ha dud....not knowing the answer gel voy tejea....like not living av voy xen hes....for not doing something How to Express Certain English Tenses English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi. (Mirad present perfect of ser (to be) + the present participle of the main verb, tixer. The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At saya tixer, the past perfect of the verb ser (to be) + the present participle of the main verb, tixer. The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive). The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive). Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | xer....do || ser....be |- | agxer....grow (something) || agser....grow (up) |- | amxer....heat, make hot || amser....become hot, heat up |- | puxer....throw || puser....jump |- | per....go || ber....put |- | aber....put on || aper....get on |- | yaber....raise || yaper....rise |- | poxer....stop (something) || poser....(come to a) stop |- | yuber....bring || yuper....approach |- | yeber....insert || yeper....enter |} At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants. Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast. Poxu ha pur!....Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car! Ha pur posa.....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE]. At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window. Ha amar yapaye.....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE]. Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | Ha mes yijaThe door opened. || Ha nasyef yijpaThe purse came open. || At yijba ha mes.I opened the door. || Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput.The door was opened by an intruder |- | Ha mes yuja.The door closed. || Ha yanup yujpa.The meeting adjourned. || At yujba ha mes.I closed the door.||Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob.The door should be closed by bedtime. |- | Ha dezun ijaye.The play has started.||Ha par ijpa boy poys.The car started up immediately. ||At ijba ata tyal.I started my meal.||Ha tyal ijbwa jwa.The meal was started early. |- | Ha dezun ujaye.The play has ended.||Ata yex ujpaye.My work has come to an end. || A ujba ha dyes.I finished the book.||Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa.The book never got finished. |- | Ha tob toja zomoj.The man died yesterday evening.||Ha tob tojpa.The man dropped dead. || Hot tojba ha twob?Who killed the man?||Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd.The man was killed by his wife. |- | Teju.Live!.||Tejpu!.Come alive!. || Yat efe tejber ha twob.We need to revive the man.||Ha twob yofwa tejbwer.The man could not be revived. |- | Ha tobot taja zojub.The baby was born yesterday. || Hoj ha tobot tajpo?When will the baby pop out? || Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub.She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.||Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj.The baby boy was birthed after midnight. |- | At tija jwe.I woke up on time.||It voy tijpa.He did not come to.. || At tijbo et jwa.I will wake (you) up early.||At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa.I don't want to be woken too early. |- | At tujeya.I was sleeping.||At tujpeya.I was falling sleep. || At tujbo it.I will put (him) to sleep..||Ha tobot tujbwo glojo.The baby will be put to sleep soon. |} Reflexive Verbs thumb| Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself. Tru eut!....Know thyself! It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife. Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself. Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix: uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill) utboler....support oneself (= self-support) utdider....wonder (= self-ask) Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: Et efe vyilxer eut.....You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or) Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash]. Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | per....go (to) || Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home.It pa Paris.....He went to Paris. |- | der....say (to), tell || Du at eta dyun.....Tell me your name.Du at has.....Tell it to me. |- | peser....wait (for) || Pesu at.....Wait for me. |- | buer....give (to) || Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book. |} As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at.....Give that to me. See more about this in the chapter on Syntax. Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, whereas an inchoative verbs means to become or take on the quality of something. Derived from Adjectives Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize. To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix -xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + -xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! -xer !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | agabig || agaxerto magnify || agxerto grow |- | anaone || anaxerto unify || anxerto unite |- | yonaapart || yonaxerto separate || yonxerto cut |- | yagalong || yagaxerto lengthen || yagxerto stretch |- | yugaslow || yugaxerto retard || yugxer to brake |- | sanaformal || sanaxerto formalize || sanxerto form |- | geaequal || geaxerto equalize || gexerto equal, equate |- | jaaprior || jaaxerto prioritize || jaxerto prepare |- | aotapersonal || aotaxerto personalize || aotxerto personify |} To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! -ser !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | agabig || agaserto get bigger || agserto grow |- | anaone || anaserto unify || anserto unite, become united |- | yonaapart || yonaserto become separate || yonserto break |- |} Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: Ansu ey yet golxwo.....Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE] At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE] Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE] Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE] Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE] Derived from Nouns Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | mog....ash || mogxerto incinerate || mogserto become ashes |- | yan....collection || yanxerto collect || yanserto get together |- | tad....spouse || tadxerto marry || tadserto get married |- | yom....ice || yomxerto freeze/make ice || yomserto freeze/become ice |- | mag....fire || magxerto burn, set fire to || magserto burn, get burned |- | uk....void || ukxerto empty || ukserbecome empty, empty out |} Intermediary Causative Verbs Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: At gobluxo ata tayeb zajub.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow. Et voy yafe puxer at.....You cannot make me go. Wit tojbuxa yit.....He had them killed. At efe vyilxuxer ata pur.....I need to have my car washed. Et upuxwa him av hes.....You were made to come here for some reason. At bakambuxo et.....I will have you hospitalized. Et voy yafe deuzuxer at.....You cannot make me sing. At hihiduxwa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh). Eta deuz hihiduxa yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.) Van het ivasuxu weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy. Hua enzyukpur uzpuxa yata pur.....That motorcycle caused our car to veer. Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | bier....to take || buer....to give |- | nier....to consume || nuer....to supply |- | nyier....to order || nyuer....to deliver |- | nazunier....win a prize || nazunuer....award a prize |- | noysier....pay off || noysuer....charge |- | ojbier....borrow || ojbuer....lend |- | tadier....get married || taduer....marry off |- | papier....take flight || papuer....send off flying |- | pipier....set sail || pipuer....dock |- | simbier....take a seat || simbuer....offer a seat |- | tampier....leave home || tampuer....arrive home |- | tamier....settle in || tamuer....shelter |- | nuxbier....to buy || nixbuer....to sell |- | telier....to eat || teluer....to feed |- | gonbier....to participate || gonbuer....to share |- | tilier....to drink || tiluer....to ply with drink |- | teubier....to swallow || teubuer....to spit out |- | teatier....to observe, watch || teatuer....to show |- | taxier....to memorize || taxuer....to remind |- | alier....to breathe in || aluer....to breathe out, expire |- | ilier....to absorb || iluer....to pour |- | ifier....to enjoy || ifuer....to please |- | dier....to ask || duer....to suggest |- | tier....to learn || tuer....to inform |- | pier....to depart || puer....to arrive |- | kebier....to choose || kebuer....to distribute |- | byier....to originate || byuer....to target |- | mempier....to take off || mempuer....to land |- | sinier....visualize || sinuer....display |- | xier....to result || xuer....to cause |- | yifier....to get up the courage || yifuer....to encourage, challenge |- | yafonier....to gain power || yafonuer....to empower |- | trier....to become acquainted with || truer....to acquaint with, introduce to |- | tepzexier....to draw attention || tepzexuer....to focus attention on |- | yekier....to undertake || yekuer....to challenge |- | dyunier....to assume the name of || dyunuer....to bestow the name of |- | abfinier....to take advantage of || abfinuer....to favor |} In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed) nunuer....to sell (patient-directed) nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed) tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed) tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed) tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed) ebtuier....to intercommunicate alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed) aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed) aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed) bier ....to take (subject-directed) buer....to give (patient-directed) buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed) Bi-radical Verbs Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | nuxer....to pay || bier....to take || nuxbier....to buy |- | nixer....to earn || buer....to give || nixbuer....to sell |- | kexer....to seek || bier....to take || kexbier....to choose |- | uper....to come || dier....to ask || updier....to invite |- | teater....to see || der....to tell || teader....to testify |- | teeter....to hear || drer....to write || teadrer....to report |- | teater....to see || per....to go || teaper....to visit |- | texer....to think || der....to say || texder....to mention |- | kexer....to seek || pixer....to catch || kexpixer....to hunt |- | yeker....to try || teexer....to listen || yekteexer....to try (in court) |} Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate by losing the b before the verb per....to go or the verb ber. This assimilation does not occur for other verbs beginning with b such as byexer (to hit). A preposition ending in b will, however, assimilate (lose the b) before any verb bases beginning with a p. For example, ab (on) + bexer (to hold) = obbexer (to hold on), because obexer could be interpreted as to release. Here are some examples: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | ab....on || aber....applynot abber! || aper....get onnot abper! |- | ob....off || ober....remove || oper....get off, dismount |- | ab....off || abbaxrer....to rub on || apyexer....to attack |- | eb....between || eber....block || eper....intervene |- | eb....between || ebdrayefser....to interleave || ebdrafxer....to interleave |- | ub....toward || uber....to send || uper....to come |- | ub....toward || ubbixer...to attract || upixer....to pitch toward |- | yab....up || yaber....raise || yaper....rise |- | yob....down || yober....take down || yoper....descend |- | yub....near || yuber....bring near || yuper....approach |- | yib....far || yiber....take away || yiper....go far away |- | yeb....in || yeber....insert || yeper....enter |- | yeb....in || yepuxer....throw in || yepuser....jump in |- | oyeb....out || oyeber....expose || oyeper....exit |- | oyeb....out || oyebbuxer....expel || oyepuxer....eject |- | zyu....round || zyuber....rotate || zyuper....revolve |- | zya....throughout || zyaber....spread || zyaper....tour |- | av....for || avdaler....plead || avper....pursue |- | ov....against || ovber....oppose || ovper....countervene |- | yan....together || yanber....compose || yanper....meet |- | yon....apart || yonber....separate || yonper....separate |- | iz....direct || izber....lead || izper....head |- | uz....curved || uzber....divert || uzper....diverge |- | yuz....around || yuzber....surround || yuzper....circulate |- | yiz....beyond || yizber....transfer || yizper....surpass |- | zoy....back, re- || zoyber....return || zoyper....go back |} Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw- The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-1....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.: ember....to position → zoy-ember....to reposition, replace buer....to give → zoybuer....to return (an object), give back sanxer....to shape, form → zoysanxer....to reshape, reform, transform zyauber....to broadcast → gawzyauber....to re-broadcast taja....born → gawtaja....reborn aber....to apply → gawaber....to reapply teaper....to visit → gawteaper....to revisit uper....to come → zoy-uper2....to return, come back buxer....to push → zoybuxer....to repel, push back puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to reject, throw back, jettison Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk. It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again. If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoy-upu!. Note 2: The prefix zoy is followed by a hyphen to make it clear that the prepositon is zoy, not zo and that the base verb is uper (come), not yuper (to approach). Until we meet again or au revoir is expressed by Ju gawyanup. Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo- The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.: sexer....to build, construct → losexer....to destroy, deconstruct anxer....to unite → loanxer....to disunite xer....to do → loxer....to undo Note the difference between o- and lo-. odoparuwa....unarmed (= not armed) lodoparuwa....disarmed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm) Expressing co- with yan- The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.: exer....to operate → yanexer....to cooperate tamer....to dwell → yantamer....to cohabit napber....to put in order → yannapber....to coordinate Making Verbs Completive with ik- Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up. Here are some examples in Mirad: tojber....to kill → iktojber....to kill off, exterminate telier....to eat → iktelier....to eat up ujber....to finish → ikujber....to finish off/up gofler....to rip → ikgofler....to rip up drer....to write → ikdrer....to write down byexer....to beat → ikbyexer....to beat up agser....to grow → ikagser....to grow up Making Verbs Continuative with je- Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-: daler....to talk → jedalar....to go on talking, to blabber tejer....to live → jetejer....to go on living, to survive yexer....to work → jeyexer....to go on working, to keep working teaxer....to look → jeteaxer....to watch teexer....to listen → jeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention duler....to insist → jeduler....to nag Making Verbs Inchoative with ij- Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-: texer....to think → ijtexer....to start to think ifier....to enjoy → ijifier....to start liking trer....to know → ijtrer....to get to know baxer....to stir → ijbaxer....to instigate byaxer....to erect → ijbyaxer....to establish, to institute dezer....to perform → ijdezer....to premier, to debut eser....to exist → ijeser....to come about kaxer....to find → ijkaxer....to invent magxer....to burn → ijmagxer....to kindle saxer....to make → ijsaxer....to create texer....to think → ijtexer....to conceive tuxer....to teach → ijtuxer....to initiate xeler....to celebrate → ijxeler....to inaugurate Making Verbs Terminative with uj- Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-: telier....to eat → ujtelier....to finish eating dyeer....to read → ujdyeer....to finish reading ufteuder....to complain → ujufteuder....to quit carping aker....to win → ujaker....to succeed der....to say → ujder....to conclude gaber....to add → ujgaber....to append, to added at the end gyoxer....to thin → ujgyoxer....to taper kyeser....to happen → ujkyeser....to turn out oker....to lose → ujoker....to fail Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if- tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll tuyuxer....to finger → iftuyuxer....to tickle teaxer....to look → ifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically) piper....to sail → ifpiper....to go cruising teuder....to shout → ifteuder....to laugh eker....to play → ifeker....to have fun abbaxer....to pat → ifabbaxer....to fondle, to caress axler....to act → ifaxler....to have fun bier....to take → ifbier....to embrace, to adopt, to foster buer....to give → ifbuer....to donate, to gift bikuer....to care for → ifbikuer....to foster bixer....to pull → ifbixer....to entice, to tempt, to seduce ebdaler....to converse → ifebdaler....to chitchat mimparer....to go boating → ifmimparer....to go yachting tayoxer....to touch → iftayoxer....to tickle, to titillate teaxer....to look at → ifteaxer....to ogle, to feast one's eyes on, to moon over telier....to eat → iftelier....to feast on tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll, to jaunt, to promenade Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf- tosier....to feel → uftosier....to get angry eker....to play → ufeker....to fight der....to say → ufder....to express displeasure aluer....to exhale → ufaluer....to huff daler....to talk → ufdaler....to rant teaxer....to look at → ufteaxer....to scorn, to disdain teuber....to make an expression → ufteuber....to frown teuder....to shout → ufteuder....to grouse, to gripe Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of- bier....to take → ofbier....to steal deler....to declare → ofdeler....to ban yeper....to enter → ofyeper....to intrude, break in zeyper....to cross → ofzeyper....to transgress, poach gelxer....to copy → ofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize bekuluer....to administer medicine → ofbekuluer....to dope nuxuer....to pay → ofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya- bexler....to keep → fyabexler....to enshrine buer....to give → fyabuer....to sacrifice der....to say → fyader....to bless daler....to speak → fyadaler....to preach, sermonize diler....to request → fyadiler....to pray deuzer....to sing → fyadeuzer....to chant ifrer....to love dearly → fyaifrer....to worship, adore jader....to predict → fyajader....to prophesy miluer....to sprinkle → fyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water ojvader....to promise → fyaojvader....to swear xeler....to practice → fyaxeler....to celebrate koser....to hide → fyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage teazer....perform a show → fyateazer....to perform a miracle Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo- der....to say → fyoder....to curse diler....to request → fyodiler....to conjure tyezer....to perform magic → fyotezer....to engage in black magic xer....to do → fyoxer....to sin Expressing Good Actions with fi- agser....to grow → fiagser....to thrive, to flourish axler....to act → fiaxler....to behave well der....to say → fider....to praise deler....to declare → fideler....to approve datiber....to host → fidatiber....to welcome diber....to manage → fidiber....to husband doler....to be silent → fidoler....to be discrete duer....to suggest → fiduer....to recommend ebexler....to interact → fiebexler....to get along well exer....to operate → fiexer....to operate smoothly fer....to want → fifer....to mean well ijer....to start → fiijer....to get a good start nagser....to measure → finagser....to adapt napxer....to arrange → finapxer....to tidy up, to neaten ojfer....to wish → fiojfer....to wish well per....to go → fiper....to fare well, to prosper teaser....to seem → fiteaser....to look nice teaxer....to look at → fiteaxer....to admire tejer....to live → fitejer....to thrive teuder....to shout → fiteuder....to acclaim, to laud tosuer....to make feel → fitosuer....to exhilarate tujer....to sleep → fitujer....to sleep soundly yaker....to expect → fiyaker....to hope yuxer....to help → fiyuxer....to benefit xer....to do → fixer....to do well Expressing Bad Actions with fu- axler....to act → fuaxler....to misbehave bekuer....to treat → fubekuer....to mistreat, to maltreat bexer....to hold → fubexer....to fumble bikuer....to care for → fubikuer....to neglect daler....to talk → fudaler....to speak ill of, to badmouth deler....to declare → fudeler'....to denounce diber....to manage → fudiber....to mismanage, to maladminister doler....to be quiet → fudoler....to sulk dezgonuer....to cast → fudezgonuer....to miscast exer....to function → fuexer....to malfunction fer....to want → fufer....to wish ill fyiduer....to advise → fufyiduer....to ill-advise napxer....to arrange → funapxer....to mess up yevder....to judge → fuyevder....to critique negatively yuxer....to help → fuyuxer....to abuse Expressing More Intense Actions with az- abbixer....to attract → azabbixer....to infatuate aluer....to blow → azaluer....to huff basrer....to shake → azbasrer....to convulse bexer....to hold → azbexer....to clutch birer....to grab → azbirer....to seize buxer....to push → azbuxer....to prod byexer....to strike → azbyexer....to stomp, to hit hard der....to say → azder....to emphasize duer....to suggest → azduer....to urge dizeuder....to laugh → azdizeuder....to guffaw fer....to want → azfer....to crave fuyevder....to criticize → azfuyevder....to lambaste yujber....to close → azyujber....to lock Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz- der....to utter → ozder....to whisper duer....to suggest → ozduer....to hint dizeuder....to laugh → ozdizeuder....to chuckle uvteuder....to moan → ozuvteuder....to whimper tyoper....to walk → oztyoper....to limp Expressing pre-, fore- with ja- der....to tell → jader....to foretell, predict teater....to see → jateater....to foresee, preview ter....to know → jater....to presage, have foreknowledge of yever....to judge → jayever....to prejudge juder....to date → jajuder....to antedate Expressing post-, after- with jo- juder....to date → jojuder....to postdate texer....to think → jotexer....to reflect on, review uvder....to express sadness → jouvder....to mourn, regret ibler....to obtain → joibler....to inherit Expressing excessively with gra- telier....to eat → gratelier....to overeat fer....to want → grafer....to covet der....to say → grader....to exaggerate daler....to talk → gradaler....to yammer Expressing inadequately with gro- fyinder....to value → grofyinder....to underestimate mageler....to cook → gromageler....to undercook xaer....to perform → groxaer....to underperform Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv- axler....to act → ovaxler....to counteract apyexer....to attack → ovapyexer....to counterattack daler....to speak → ovdaler....to oppose der....to say → oyvder....to contradict ber....to put → oyvber....to reverse, overturn texer....to think → oyvtexer....to contest, disagree per....to go → oyvper....to contravene Expressing on behalf, for with av- axler....to act → avaxler....to act on behalf of daler....to speak → avdaler....to advocate, speak on behalf of dyundrer....to sign → avdyundrer....to endorse Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-) tojber....to kill → uttojber....to commit suicide vyovider....to flatter → utvyovider....to flatter oneself zaypuxwer....to be propelled → utzaypuxwer....to be self-propelled fider....to praise → utfider....to brag gober....to decrement → utgober....to autodecrement Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another) tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another ifer....to love → hyuitifer....to love one another Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between) or eyb- (among) tadier....to marry → ebtadier....to intermarry zyaber....to spread → ebzyaber....to intersperse vyexer....to relate → ebvyexer....to interrelate mulxer....to materialize → eybmulxer....to mix xer....to do → eybxer....to interest, to involve Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-) bexler....to keep → obexler....to release, let go of aynser....to integrate → oaynser....to disintegrate, to decay beler....to carry → obeler....to drop bier....to take → obier....to leave, relinquish boser....to be quiet → oboser....to be upset drer....to write → odrer....to erase Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to release → olobexwa....to unrelease Expressing a Public or Official Action with do- Do- is a stub for dot (society). afder....to allow → doafder....to authorize bier....to take → dobier....to conquer, take over, take control of tojber....to kill → dotojber....to execute buer....to give → dobuer....to dedicate daler....to speak → dodaler....to orate, speak in public deler....to declare → dodeler....to announce drer....to write → dodrer....to publicize, report direr....to demand → dodirer....to mandate, to dictate drer....to write → dodrer....to publicize drurer....to print → dodrurer....to publish duer....to suggest → doduer....to propose, to move durer....to order → dodurer....to decree dyeder....to recite → dodyeder....to declaim dyeer....to read → dodyeer....to lecture ebdaler....to discuss → doebdaler....to deliberate eber....to block → doeber....to enjoin, to restrain fuxer....to do bad → dofuxer....to commit a crime kebier....to choose → dokebier....to elect lonapxer....to mess up → dolonapxer....to riot naxgaxer....to raise prices → donaxgaxer....to auction off nixbuer....to sell → donixbuer....to hawk Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya- der....to say → vyader....to avow, to be frank ber....to set, put → vyaber....to control bier....to take → vyabier....to postulate boler....to support → vyaboler....to prove duder....to answer → vyaduder....to solve duer....to suggest → vyaduer....to allege nadxer....to line up → vyanadxer....to align nagxer....to measure → vyanagxer....to fit napxer....to arrange, order → vyanapxer....to adjust nazaxer....to evaluate → vyanazaxer....to corroborate kexer....to seek → vyakexer....to investigate tuer....to inform → vyatuer....to advise Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo- der....to say → vyoder....to lie, to misstate tester....to understand → vyotester....to misunderstand tuer....to inform → vyotuer....to misinform, to deceive xer....to do → vyoxer....to do wrong, fail, misdo yuxler....to serve → vyoyuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully Making Verbs Positive with va- der....to say → vader....to affirm texer....to think → vatexer....to believe yeker....to expect → vayeker....to presume bier.....to take → vabier....to accept Making Verbs Negative with vo- der....to say → voder....to deny texer....to think → votexer....to doubt yeker....to expect → voyeker....to rule out bier.....to take → vobier....to reject Making Verbs Suppositional with ve- der....to say → veder....to conjecture texer....to think → vetexer....to suppose, hypothesize yovder....to blame → veyovder....to indict, accuse Speeding up Verbs with ig- pier....to leave → igpier....to flee pyoser....to drop → igpyoser....to plummet tyoper....to walk → igtyoper....to run yeper....to enter → igyeper....to rush in Slowing up Verbs with ug- paser....to move → ugpaser....to amble teaxer....to look → ugteaxer....to gaze ilper....to flow → ugilper....to trickle tilier....to drink → ugtilier....to sip Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok- baxer....to stir → yokbaxer....to startle hihider....to laugh → yokhihider....to burst out laughing teaser....to appear → yokteaser....to suddenly appear yoktojer....to die → yoktojer....to drop dead Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo- byaser....to stand → kyobyaser....to stand still kexer....to seek → kyokexer....to hound, stalk teaxer....to look → kyoteaxer....to stare, glare texer....to think → kyotexer....to obsess with, fixate on Expression the Notion of Randomness or Chance with kye- der....to say → kyeder....to guess, divine per....to per → kyeper....to fluctuate poper....to travel → kyepoper....to wander napxer....to order → kyenapxer....to scramble, shuffle bier....to take → kyebier....to select kaxer....to find → kyekaxer....to discover, to find by chance vyabxer....to check → kyevabxer....to spot check Expressing the Notion of Change with kya- baser....to make a move → kyabaser....to shift sanxer....to form → kyasanxer....to transform xer....to do/make → kyaxer....to change napxer....to order → kyanapxer....to shuffle dyanxer....to phrase → kyadyanxer....to paraphrase Expressing Covert Actions with ko- ber....to put → kober....to hide beler....to carry → kobeler....to smuggle bier....to take → kobier....to steal ebkyaxer....to exchange → koebkyaxer....to traffic exer....to operate → koexer....to spy, operate under cover fler....to wish for → kofler....to covet, be jealous of apyexer....to attack → koapyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack loexer....to destroy → koloexer....to sabotage Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke- teaxer....to look → keteaxer....to scan vyaxer....to prove → kevyaxer....to experiment tier....to learn → ketier....to be interested in bier....to take → kebier....to choose pexer....to catch → kepexer....to hunt Expressing Lateral Actions with ku- buxer....to push → kubuxer....to rebuff, shun der....to say → kuder....to comment, remark tyoper....to step → kutyoper....to step aside Expressing Diagonal Actions with ki- teaxer....to look → kiteaxer....to look askance at tuxer....to teach → kituxer....to brainwash tyoper....to walk → kityoper....to limp pyoser....to fall → kipyoser....to slip and fall per....to go → kiper....to slide Expressing Near Actions with yub- der....to say → yubder....to intimate, hint gexer....to equate → yubgexer....to approximate bixer....to pull → yubbixer....to attract, draw near teaxer....to look → yubteaxer....to scrutinize, examine Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-) drer....to write → yibdrer....to wire, telegraph bixer....to pull → yi(b)bixer....to distract tuier....to communicate → yibtuier....to telecommunicate nyuxer....to deliver → yibnyuxer....to mail, post Expressing up-, super- with yab- ber....to put → ya(b)ber....to raise, to put up bixler....to drag → ya(b)bixler....to dredge up uper....to come → yabuper....to come up nogyanxer....to scale → yabnogyanxer....to scale up, escalate Expressing down-, sub- with yob- ber....to put → yo(b)ber....to lower, put down kyaber....to shift → yobkyaxer....to downshift musper....to climb → yobmusper....to climb down nogyanxer....to scale → yobnogyanxer....to downscale Expressing in- with yeb- ber....to put → ye(b)ber....to insert, put in beler....to carry → ye(b)beler....to import uzber....to bend → yebuzber....to inflect yujber....to close → yebyujber....to enclose, include Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb- ber....to put → oyeber....to put out, expose beler....to carry → oyebeler....to export uber....to send → oyebuber....to emit, send out yujber....to close → oyebyujber....to exclude Expressing pro-, forward with zay- ber....to put → zayber....to advance, put forward kexer....to seek → zaykexer....to scout out puxer....to throw → zaypuxer....to propel, thrust tyoper....to walk → zaytyoper....to progress, to walk forward Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy- uber....to send → zoyber....to send back kixer....to bend → zoykixer....to reflect puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to repel neadper....to track → zoyneadper....to backtrack Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey- per....to go → zeyper....to cross, transit beler....to carry → zeybeler....to transport, convey drer....to write → zeydrer....to transcribe kyober....to fix → zeykyober....to transfix, transplant vyayeker....to check → zeyvyayeker....to crosscheck Expressing through, per- with zye- per....to go → zyeper....to permeate, get through kexer....to seek → zyekexer....to rummage, sift through drer....to write → zyedrer....to cross out, draw a line through iluer....to pour → zyeiluer....to soak koper....to sneak → zyekoper....to sneak through Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya- ber....to put → zyaber....to spread buer....to give → zyabuer....to distribute ijber....to open → zyaijber....to open wide nuxer....to pay → zyanuxer....to disburse puxer....to throw → zyapuxer....to scatter, cast about Expressing mid-, center with ze- ber....to put → zeber....to balance byaser....to stand → zebyaser....to straddle der....to say → zeder....to interject pyoser....to fall → zepyoser....to sag poxer....to stop → zepoxer....to interrupt Expressing futurity with oj- ber....to put → ojber....to put off, postpone bier....to take → ojbier....to borrow fer....to want → ojfer....to wish, aspire texer....to think → ojtexer....to plan teater....to see → ojteater....to envision vader....to affirm → ojvader....to promise Expressing past with aj- ber....to put → ajber....to pass, relegate to the past der....to say → ajder....to evoke, hearken, recount embier....to occupy → ajembier....to haunt texer....to think → ajtexer....to reminisce, to reflect uvtosder....to express sadness → ajuvtosder....to apologize nexer....to store → ajnexer....to archive Expressing present with ej- buer....to give → ejbuer....to present eser....to exist → ejeser....to attend, to be present nuxer....to pay → ejnuxer....to pay cash tuer....to inform → ejtuer....to update uvtosder....to express sadness → ejuvtosder....to apologize Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long) beser....to stay → yagbeser....to linger bexer....to hold → yagbexer....to conserve, preserve daler....to talk → yagdaler....to ramble dodaler....to orate → yagdodaler....to harangue fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine teaxer....to look → yagteaxer....to stare fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine Expressing a brief action with yog- (short) drer....to write → yogdrer....to abbreviate teaxer....to look → yogteaxer....to glance at tujer....to sleep → yogtujer....to snooze, nap gobler....to cut → yoggobler....to cut short, truncate Some Hybrid Prefixes The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal) per....to go → kuiper....to wobble tyoper....to walk → kuityoper....to limp The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg: baser....to move → zaobaser....to rock per....to go → zaoper....to alternate beler....to carry → kuibeler....to shuttle, ferry pyoser....to fall → kuipyoser....to pendulate The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p. baser....to move → yaobaser....to bob per....to go → yaoper....to heave beler....to carry → yaobeler....to shuttle, ferry peper....to ride → yaopeper....to jounce puser....to jump → yaopuser....to hop, bounce The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg: drer....to write → buidrer....to correspond -er....to x → buier....to trade beler....to carry → buibeler....to shuttle, ferry xer....to do → buixer....to push and pull, spring poper....to travel → buipoper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg: drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle der....to say → uizder....to equivocate baser....to move → uizbaser....to wiggle, to squirm per....to go → uizper....to careen, reel paser....to move → uizpaser....to swerve, yaw The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg: drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle buxer....to push → zuibuxer....to push around baser....to move → zuibaser....to sway, totter per....to go → zuiper....to zigzag pasler....to shake → zuipasler....to wobble The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg: ber....to put → aoyeber....to insert and extract tiexer....to breathe → aoyetiexer....to breath in and out paper....to fly → aoyepaper....to fly in and out The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg: ber....to put → aober....to put on and off per....to go → aoper....to get on and off, embark and disembark The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg: der....to say → vaoder....to decide daler....to talk → vaodaler....to waffle duder....to answer → vaoduder....to answer yes or no kyaxer....to change → vaokyaxer....to redact texer....to think → vaotexer....to deliberate, vacillate The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin) ber....to put → uijber....to switch off and on daler....to talk → uijdaler....to stutter The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open) ber....to put → yuijber....to open and close, blink The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there) paper....to fly → huimpaper....to fly here and yon per....to go → huimper....to wander kexer....to seek → huimkexer....to search high and low Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes teaxer....to look, behold, regard aybteaxer....to supervise, look over ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect) eynteaxer....to squint fizteaxer....to respect fuzteaxer....to disrespect gawteaxer....to review, re-look hyuitteaxer....to look at one another ibteaxer....to ignore igteaxer....to glance, glimpse ifteaxer....to marvel at izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim jateaxer....to preview jeteaxer....to watch, observe joteaxer....to review kateaxer....to look for keteaxer....to scan kiteaxer....to look askance koteaxer....to peek, spy kozyeteaxer....to peep kozyoteaxer....to peer kuteaxer....to observe kyeteaxer....to browse kyoteaxer....to stare, glare oteaxer....to ignore, overlook ufteaxer....to glare, leer ugteaxer....to gaze yagteaxer....to gape, gawk yebteaxer....to inspect yibteaxer....to view from afar yogteaxer....to glance at yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of yubteaxer....to examine yuibteaxer....to look near and far yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect yanteaxer....to view together yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook vyateaxer....to investigate, check out vyoteaxer....to view wrongly zateaxer....to face, confront zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect zoyteaxer....to look back zeyteaxer....to look across ziteaxer....to look to the right zuteaxer....to look to the left zuiteaxer....to look right and left zyateaxer....to look all over, survey zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse zyoteaxer....to squint yobteaxer....to look down yaobteaxer....to look up and down zaoteaxer....to look back and forth yabteaxer....to look up yubketeaxer....to pry uzteaxer....to look indirectly at oyebteaxer....to look out ojteaxer....to peer into the future marteaxer....to star-gaze tabteaxer....to autopsy Modal Verbs Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs thumb| Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like English modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: I want to go. You must wait. You may stay. I dare say. Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | afer....mayayfer....might || ofer....may notoyfer....might not |- ! Ability | yafer....can||yofer....cannot |- ! Need | efer....need to || |- ! Obligation | yefer....mustyeyfer....should ||oyefer....must notoyeyfer....should not |- ! Desire | fer....want to || |- ! Enjoyment | ifer....love to, enjoyiyfer....like to || ufer....hate touyfer....dislike to |- ! Courage |yifer....dare to || yufer....be afraid to, fear |- ! Liberty | yiver....have a right to, be free to || yuver....be bound to, be supposed to |- ! Expectation | yaker....expect to || yoker....be surprised to |- ! Conation | yeker....try to || |- ! Difficulty | yiker....to find it hard to || yuker....to find it easy to |} These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: At fe ter.....I want to know. Wit yifa yeper.....He dared to enter. Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you. Duven et yaka aker?....Did you expect to win? Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better. If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: At fe per.....I want to go. At fu per.....I would like to go. Et yafe aker.....You can win. Et yafu aker.....You could win. Yet yefe iper.....You must leave. Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave. Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: At ife et. ....I love you. At iyfe et. ....I like you. Et yefe iper.....You must leave. Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave. Iyt yafe aker.....She can win. Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win. At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art. At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art. The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time. Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention. Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money. At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair. At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early. At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money. Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball. Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you. Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here. Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play. Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep. Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here. Mavier him ofwe.....Smoking here is prohibited. At ife dyeer.....I love to read. Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in? At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day. It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at. Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars? At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early. Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like. Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing. Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud. At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better. At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad. Von yufu der hos et tesde.....Don't be afraid to say what you mean. Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer. Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around. Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | afermay || afaallowed || afwerbe permitted || afwapermissable |- !row=1| Necessity | eferneed || efaneedful || efwerbe necessary || efwanecessary, required |- !row=1| Prohibition | oferbe unallowed || ofaprohibited || ofwerbe prohibited || ofwabanned |- !row=1| Possibility | yaferbe able || yafaable || yafwerbe possible || yafwapossible |- !row=1| Obligation | yefermust || yefaobliged || yefwerbe obligatory || yefwaobligatory |- !row=1| Duty | yeyfershould || yeyfasupposed, duty-bound || yeyfwerbe supposed || yeyfwadue |- !row=1| Impossibility | yoferbe unable || yofaunable || yofwerbe impossible || yofwaimpossible |- !row=1| Volition | ferwant || fadesirous || fwerbe desirable || fwadesirable, wanted |- !row=1| Love | iferloveiyferlike || ifaenamorediyfafond || ifwerbe lovediyfwerbe liked || ifwalovableiyfwalikeable |- !row=1| Hate | uferhateuyferdislike || ufaaverseuyfadispleased|| ufwerbe hateduyfwerbe disliked || ufwaodiousunliked |- !row=1| Courage | yiferdare || yifadaring, brave || yifwerbe safe || yifwasafe |- !row=1| Fear | yuferbe afraid || yufaafraid || yufwerbe a danger || yufwafrightening |- !row=1| Joy | iverenjoy || ivaglad || ivwerbe a joy || ivwaenjoyable |- !row=1| Sorrow | uverbe sorry || uvasorry, sad || uvwerbe a shame || uvwaregrettable |} Examples of subject-oriented forms: At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything. Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film. Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there? Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name. Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land. At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance. Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say. At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner. Von yufu; At yupeye.....Fear not; I am coming. Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon. Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance. Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win. At ive teater et bakser.....I'm glad to see you get better. Su iva.....Be happy. At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave. Examples of patient-oriented forms: Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him.....It is permissible to smoke here. Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.....It is prohibited to throw litter here. Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu.....It is desired that you stop talking. Voy yafwe beser him gajob.....It is not possible to remain here any longer. Yofwa av at ivteuder.....It was not possible for me to laugh. Yefwe van et piu ig.....It is essential that you leave quickly. He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes? Ga yux efwo.....More help will be needed. Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice. Uvwe van wit oka.....It's a shame that he lost. *lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes. Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.) || afwaxer....permit (something to be done) |- | efxer....require || efwaxer....necessitate |- | ofxer....prohibit || ofwaxer....prohibit |- | yafxer....enable || yafwaxer....make possible |- | yefxer....oblige || yefwaxer....make obligatory |- | yofxer....cripple || yofwaxer....disable |- | yifxer....embolden || yifwaxer....make safe |- | yufxer....intimidate || yufwaxer....make frightening |- | ifxer....please || ifwaxer....make pleasant |} Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | -yafa....able to X, -able || -yafwa....possible to X |- | -yofa....unable to X || -yofwa....impossible to X |- | -ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile || -ifwa....enjoyable to X |- | -ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic ||-ufwa....unenjoyable to X |- | -yika....hard of Xing || -yikwa....hard to X |- | -yuka....comfortable/easy Xing || -yukwa....easy to X |- | -yaka....expecting to X || yakwa....expected/likely to X |- | -efa....in need of Xing || -efwa....necessary to X |- | -yefa....obliged to X || -yefwa....obligatory/due to X |- | -yufa....afraid of Xing || -yufwa....frightening to X |} This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| Subject | teatyafaable to see, sighted || teatyaferbe able to see || teatyofablind || teatyoferbe blind |- !row=1| Patient | teatyafwavisible || teatyafwerbe visible || teatyofwainvisible || teatyofwerbe invisible |- !row=1| Subject | teetyafaable to hear, hearing || teetyaferbe able to hear || teetyofadeaf || teatyoferbe deaf |- !row=1| Patient | teetyafwaaudible || teetyafwerbe audible || teeyofwainaudible || teeyofwerbe inaudiable |- !row=1| Subject | dalyafaable to speak || dalyaferbe able to speak || dalyofamute, dumb || dalyoferbe mute, dumb |- !row=1| Subject | doabifapatriotic || doabiferbe patriotic || doabufarebellious || doabuferrebel |- !row=1| Subject | tosyafasensitive || tosyaferbe able to feel || tosyofainsensitive || tosyoferbe numbed |- !row=1| Patient | tayotyafwapalpable || tayotyafwerbe palpable || tayotyofwanumb || tayotyofwerbe impalbable, numb |- !row=1| Patient | testyukwaeasy to understand || testyukwaxermake easily understood || testyikwahard to understand || testyikwaxermake hard to understand |- !row=1| Subject| tudyakapregnant, expecting || tudyakerbe expecting|| || |- !row=1| Patient|mamilyakwalikely to rain || mamilyakwerto be expected to rain|| mamilyokwaunlikely to rain|| mamilyokwerto be unlikely to rain |- !row=1| Subject | tilefathirsty || tileferbe thirsty || || |- !row=1| Subject | telefahungry || teleferbe hungry || || |- !row=1| Patient | tejefwavital || tejefwerbe vital || || |- !row=1| Subject | tujefasleepy || tujeferbe sleepy || || |- !row=1| Subject | nasefapoor, needy || naseferbe needy || || |- !row=1| Subject | dudyefaaccountable, responsible || dudyeferbe responsible || || |- !row=1| Patient| texiyefwanoteworthy || texiyefwerbe noteworthy || || |} Sensing Verbs Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: + Sensing Verbs TYPE teab....eyeteata....visual teeb....earteeta....acoustic teib....noseteita....olfactory teub....mouthteuta....gustatory tayob....skintayota....tactile ReceptiveActive teatersee teeterhear teitersmell teutertaste tayoterfeel ReceptivePassive teatwerbe seen teetwerbe heard teitwerbe smelled teutwerbe tasted tayotwerbe felt Stative teaserseem teesersound teisersmell teusertaste tayoserfeel DynamicActive teaxerlook at teexerlisten teixersniff teuxertaste tayoxertouch DynamicPassive teaxwerbe looked at teexwerbe listened to teixwerbe sniffed teuxwerbe tasted tayoxwerbe touched CausativeActive teatuershow teetuermake hear teixuermake smell teuxueroffer a taste tayoxuermake feel CausativePassive teatuwerbe shown teetuwerbe made to hear teituwerbe made to smell teutuwerbe given a taste tayotuwerbe made to feel InchoativeActive teatierperceive,catch sight of teetiercatch thesound of teitierget a whiff of teutuerget a taste of tayotierget the sensation of InchoativePassive teatiwerbe perceived teetiwerbe heard teitiwerbe whiffed teutiwerbe tasted tayotiwerbe felt Negative-ModalPatient-orientedStative teatyoferbe blind teetyoferbe deaf teityoferbe unable to smell teityoferbe unable to taste tayotyoferbe insensitive Negative-ModalPatient-orientedStative teatyofwerbe invisible teetyofwerbe inaudible teityofwerbe undetectableodorwise teityofwerbe insipid tayotyofwerbe undetectableby touch Negative-ModalPatient-orientedCausative teatyofxerblind teetyofxerdeafen teityofxerdesensitizeto smell teutyofxerdesensitize totaste tayotyofxerdesensitize Negative-ModalPatient-orientedCausative teatyofwaxermake invisible teetyofwaxermake inaudible teityofwaxermake odorless teutyofwaxerrender tasteless tayotyofwaxernumb Examples of usage: At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights. Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea.....The noise was deafening. Hia tit se gla teatiyafa.....This pupil is very perceptive. Hua bekil se teityofwa.....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell). Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni.....Make the spots invisible. Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world. Frequentative Verbs Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix je-. This prefix gives the verb the meaning to keep on doing something. {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | teaxer....to look||jeteaxer....to watch |- | bexer....to hold||jebexer....to conserve |- | byexer....to hit||jebyexer....to batter |- | zoigper....to pursue||jezoigper....to stalk |- | duler....to urge || jeduler....to nag |} Hybridized Verbs Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | pyaser....jump up|| pyoser....fall down || pyaoser....bounce, undulate |- | buer....give || bier....take || buier....exchange |- | nuer....furnish || nier....consume || nuier....trade |- | tuer....inform || tier....learn || tuier....communicate |- | yaper....ascend || yoper....descend || yaoper....go up and down |- | zayper....go forward || zoyper....go back || zaoper....vacillate |- | vader....affirm || voder....deny || vaoder....decide |- | yijber....open || yujber....close || uijber....valve |- | baser....stir || boser....be still || baoser....vibrate |} Expressing Habitual Actions and States Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.). The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg: At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher. The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg: Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely. Expressing an Immediate Past To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English: Yat tadsaye ejnay.....We have just gotten married. Ejnay tadxwa.....Just married. Wit dokebiwa ejnay.....He was just elected. At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in. Verb Predicate Types Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: Voice Active (The subject is the doer of the action) Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) Stativity Stative (Does not involve action) Dynamic (Action is involved) Valency Impersonal (There is no subject) Transitive (There is an object) Intransitive (There is no object) Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) Copula (X is Y) Other Modal (can, must, should, wants to...) Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb) Motion (run, go, ride...) Communication (say, answer, claim that...) Gesture (put, shake, hit...) State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...) Action/Dynamic (do, act, make) + Verb Predicate Types Voice Stativity Valency Example active stative impersonal, -agent, -object Mamilo zajub.....It will rain tomorrow. active stative impersonal, -agent, +complement Sa gla oma.....It was very cold. active stative impersonal, +subject Ese het be ha mes.....There is someone at the door. active stative copula, subject + noun/adjective complement Et se ata twud.....You are my son.At aseye ebbyextipa.....I am becoming angry. middle stative auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object Iyt toja.....She died middle stative auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object Ha mes yija.....The door opened. active stative intransitive, +subject -object Et bokso.....You will get sick. active stative transitive, sense, +subject +object At teate et.....I see you. active stative transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement At fe per.....I want to go. active stative intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement Yofwe teater.....It is impossible to see. passive stative patient-oriented modal, +subject Mamil yakwe.....Rain is expected. middle dynamic anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open. active dynamic intransitive, +subject -object Ha fab pyosa.....The tree fell. active dynamic transitive, +subject +-object Yit pyoxa ha fab.....They felled the tree. passive dynamic intransitive, +subject, -object Ha fabi pyoxwa.....The trees were felled. active dynamic transitive, +subject, +object Obu eta tef.....Take your hat off. active dynamic ditransitive, +subject, +object +object Von et buu iyt ha nas.....Don't give her the money. active dynamic transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin Yupu ha seem.....Approach the bench.Pu tam!....Go home! (you implied) active dynamic causative, +subject +object, +agent At tayegobluxo Jon.....I will get my hair cut by John. passive dynamic causative, +subject +object, +agent At tayegobluxwo.....I will get my hair cut. active dynamic auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object Yuxu at xer his.....Help me do this. passive dynamic auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object At tuxwa eker duz.....I was taught to play music. middle dynamic reflexive, +subject = patient, -object Iyt uttojba.....She killed herself. active dynamic reciprocal, +subjects = patients Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.....They don't talk to one another anymore. Pronouns Prepositions