Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2020-21/Evidence in Measuring Workplace Happiness

Introduction Modern perspectives on happiness tend towards defining "purpose" in one's life. The Japanese, for example, qualify happiness through their idea of Ikigai, "that which makes one's life worth living", focusing on four main areas of life.García Héctor Ikigai : the Japanese secret to a long and happy life 2017 Hutchinson London 978-1-78633-089-5 22 November 2020 (Note that "well-being" differs from happiness, which forms a part of overall well-being). This Wikibook chapter will explore the use of evidence in measuring workplace happiness, as well as the tensions arising between different disciplinary perspectives. Quantifying Evidence – Disciplinary Perspectives Economics thumb| Gross National Happiness and Macroeconomic Indicators in the Kingdom of Bhutan. Economists place value on quantitative data, using surveys, self-assessment scales and measurement tools such as the Day Reconstructing Method and Bhutan's Gross National Happiness Index.Kahneman Arthur A. 1776–1780 5702 306 3 December 2004 Science A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life Experience: The Day Reconstruction Method Stone Daniel Norbert Schwarz David A. Schkade Alan B. Krueger 10.1126/science.1103572Bhutan's gross National Happiness Index https://ophi.org.uk/policy/gross-national-happiness-index/ ophi.org.uk University of Oxford 6 December 2020 Tensions can arise with other disciplines as economists focus selectively on empirical data,Rose Deidre A Modern History of Happiness as Economic Policy 2017 10.13140%2FRG.2.2.15459.76324 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316093530_A_Modern_History_of_Happiness_as_Economic_Policy 9 December 2020 which lacks subjective context, treating happiness purely as a calculation.McCloskey Deirdre N. Happyism https://newrepublic.com/article/103952/happyism-deirdre-mccloskey-economics-happiness The New Republic 9 December 2020 8 June 2012Weimann Joachim Knabe Andreas Schöb Ronnie Measuring Happiness: The Economics of Well-Being The MIT Press 978-0-262-02844-8 https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt17kk7zf 10 December 2020 Previously unavailable, big datasets now provide empirical evidence that higher income correlates with higher happiness.Ortiz-Ospina Esteban Roser Max Happiness and Life Satisfaction https://ourworldindata.org/happiness-and-life-satisfaction Our World in Data 8 December 2020 14 May 2013 This is true cross-nationally, enabling "reassessment" of the Easterlin Paradox,Stevenson, B., and J. Wolfers Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin Paradox. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2008 1 1–87 10.1353/eca.0.0001 27561613 http://www.nber.org/papers/w14282.pdf Sacks, D. W., B. Stevenson, and J. Wolfers "Subjective Well-Being, Income, Economic Development, and Growth." In …and the Pursuit of Happiness: Well-Being and the Role of Government. 2012 Institute of Economic Affairs London 59–97 http://www.iea.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/files/IEA%20Pursuit%20of%20Happiness%20web.pdf the idea that money doesn't buy happiness, and that more money to a poor person means more than it does a rich person. Company bosses use this evidence and implement pay increases tapered to benefit lower-incomes more than higher. The hope here is that happiness is "endogenous": engendering productivity and conscientiousness (Pinker, 2018),Pinker Steven Enlightenment now : the case for reason, science, humanism, and progress 2018 Penguin New York, New York 978-0-525-42757-5 1 27 November 2020 partially fulfilling a need to feel valued to feel happier. The evidence also refutes the earlier idea that $75,000 is the optimal happiness and income level above which happiness growth slows.Kahneman Daniel Deaton Angus High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 21 September 2010 107 38 16489–16493 10.1073/pnas.1011492107 9 December 2020 Psychology thumb|Happiness pie chart with percentages, based on the Happiness formula of Lyubomirsky, Shkade, Sheldon and Seligman. Modern Positive Psychologists established the Happiness Formula of H = C + V + S: C being conditions of your life; V being Volunteering that you do and daily choices you make; and S being your biological set point.Frankel Mark The Happiness Formula H=S+C+V – Brevedy https://www.brevedy.com/2013/12/18/the-happiness-formula-h-s-c-v/ Brevedy 20 November 2020 Meditation, under the “eightfold noble path” (Haidt, 2006) helps with the V because it reduces attachment and cultivates acceptance.Haidt Jonathan The happiness hypothesis : putting ancient wisdom and philosophy to the test of modern science 2006 Arrow Books London 978-0-09-947889-8 09 December 2020 Happiness has been defined as “the form of pleasant moods and emotions, well‐being, and positive attitudes” (Fisher, 2010),Fisher Cynthia D. Happiness at Work: Happiness at Work International Journal of Management Reviews December 2010 12 4 384–412 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00270.x 7 December 2020 and being happy at work has been shown to be an important factor in workplace advancement. Fisher established the key variables in measuring workplace happiness as job satisfaction, engagement and organisational loyalty, all of which can be measured both subjectively and empirically across a timeframe, concerning a unitary or collective subject.Kanungo Rabindra N. Measurement of job and work involvement. Journal of Applied Psychology June 1982 67 3 341–349 10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.341 7 December 2020 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy works to rationalise and not catastrophise behaviours, asking questions like "what's the worst that could happen?" and "has it ever happened?" to change behaviours through changing thought patterns. This has been evidenced through Randomised Control Trials (RCTs) and implemented in workplace settings to reduce stress amongst employees.Dalgaard Vita Ligaya Andersen Lars Peter Sønderbo Andersen Johan Hviid Willert Morten Vejs Carstensen Ole Glasscock David John Work-focused cognitive behavioral intervention for psychological complaints in patients on sick leave due to work-related stress: Results from a randomized controlled trial Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine 22 August 2017 16 10.1186/s12952-017-0078-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5567478/ 9 December 2020 1477-5751 A major method of evidence retrieval in psychology is self-reporting, consisting of single or multi-faceted questionnaires given to respondents through RCTs or on case-by-case bases, for example the Job Descriptive Index,Stanton Jeffrey M. Sinar Evan F. Balzer William K. Julian Amanda L. Thoresen Paul Aziz Shahnaz Fisher Gwenith G. Smith Patricia C. Development of a Compact Measure of Job Satisfaction: The Abridged Job Descriptive Index Educational and Psychological Measurement 1 February 2002 62 1 173–191 10.1177/001316440206200112 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001316440206200112?journalCode=epma 6 December 2020 en 0013-1644 or the Utrecht Work Enthusiasm Scale.Schaufeli Wilmar B. Bakker Arnold B. Salanova Marisa The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire: A Cross-National Study Educational and Psychological Measurement August 2006 66 4 701–716 10.1177/0013164405282471 6 December 2020 Psychology raises both intra- and inter-disciplinary tensions. Within psychology, twin studies have shown that genetic factors account for 35-50% of our happiness levels.Bartels Meike Saviouk Viatcheslav de Moor Marleen H. M. Willemsen Gonneke van Beijsterveldt Toos C. E. M. Hottenga Jouke-Jan de Geus Eco J. C. Boomsma Dorret I. Heritability and genome-wide linkage scan of subjective happiness Twin Research and Human Genetics: The Official Journal of the International Society for Twin Studies April 2010 13 2 135–142 10.1375/twin.13.2.135 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20397744/ 21 November 2020 1832-4274 This disproved early Freudian theory , favouring quantitative genetic data over subjective and qualitative analysis methods, raising tensions between psychologists as quantitative data continues to be held in increasingly high regard.Rich Grant J. The promise of qualitative inquiry for positive psychology: Diversifying methods The Journal of Positive Psychology 4 May 2017 12 3 220–231 10.1080/17439760.2016.1225119 7 December 2020 Psychology emphasises reasons for behaviour rather than outcomes,How Do Economics and Psychology Experiments Differ? https://www.smeal.psu.edu/lema/mission/psychexp.html Smeal College of Business The Pennsylvania State University 27 November 2020 en-us with data typically being more subjective. However, evidence used in happiness economics is largely quantitative: mathematical models predict behaviour with happiness as the desired outcome.Manski Charles F. Collaboration, conflict, and disconnect between psychologists and economists Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 20 March 2017 114 13 3286–3288 10.1073/pnas.1702309114 https://www.pnas.org/content/114/13/3286 27 November 2020 en 0027-8424 These types of data are seen in stark contrast to one another, ultimately leading to disharmony, perpetuating interdisciplinary tension further. Neuroscience Neuroscientific studies have been conducted into workplace happiness, demonstrating the interactions of neurotransmitters and the impact these have on happiness levels.Ghosh Sambit Kumar Happy Hormones at Work: Applying the Learnings from Neuroscience to Improve and Sustain Workplace Happiness NHRD Network Journal 1 October 2018 11 4 83–92 10.1177/2631454118806139 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2631454118806139#articleCitationDownloadContainer 24 November 2020 en 2631-4541 Recent research by neuroeconomist Paul Zak found that an increased level of the hormone and neurotransmitter oxytocin leads to an increased level of trust, efficiency and workplace productivity, in turn resulting in higher levels of happiness.Zak Paul The Neuroscience of High Trust Organisations Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 2018 70 1 45-58 10.1037/cpb0000076 24 November 2020 This was proven with empirical evidence, as blood samples were used to quantify oxytocin levels in social interactions.Lefevre Arthur Mottolese Raphaëlle Dirheimer Manon A comparison of methods to measure central and peripheral oxytocin concentrations in human and non-human primates Scientific Reports December 2017 7 1 17222 10.1038/s41598-017-17674-7 The evidence shows dopamine, a neurotransmitter, is a strong contributor to workplace happiness.Be happy at work: dopamine and the science behind success https://www.viglobal.com/2018/12/14/be-happy-at-work-dopamine-and-the-science-behind-success/ viGlobal viGlobal 14 December 2018 en-CA 14 December 2018 Higher levels of dopamine in the brain have been correlated with higher levels of workplace motivation and happiness.De Marco Matteo Venneri Annalena Volume and Connectivity of the Ventral Tegmental Area are Linked to Neurocognitive Signatures of Alzheimer’s Disease in Humans Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 1 January 2018 63 1 167–180 10.3233/JAD-171018 https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad171018 29 November 2020 en 1387-2877 Lower levels of motivation are linked to psychiatric disorders like depression and increased risk of Alzheimer's and other neurological disorders.Salisbury David Dopamine impacts your willingness to work https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2012/05/01/dopamine-impacts-your-willingness-to-work/ Vanderbilt University 30 November 2020 enDe Marco Matteo Venneri Annalena Volume and Connectivity of the Ventral Tegmental Area are Linked to Neurocognitive Signatures of Alzheimer’s Disease in Humans Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 1 January 2018 63 1 167–180 10.3233/JAD-171018 https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad171018 29 November 2020 en 1387-2877 The evidence used to quantify dopamine levels is empirical, using Positron Emission Tomography (PET scanning) to map, analyse and quantify neurotransmitter levels in different parts of the brain.Placzek Michael S. Zhao Wenjun Wey Hsiao-Ying Morin Thomas M. Hooker Jacob M. PET Neurochemical Imaging Modes Seminars in Nuclear Medicine 1 January 2016 46 1 20–27 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2015.09.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001299815001026?via%3Dihub 26 November 2020 en 0001-2998 Tensions also exist between psychology and neuroscience. Psychology was historically the more sociological discipline, with neuroscience relying on biological principles.Schwartz Seth J. Lilienfeld Scott O. Meca Alan Sauvigné Katheryn C. The role of neuroscience within psychology: A call for inclusiveness over exclusiveness. American Psychologist January 2016 71 1 52–70 10.1037/a0039678 28 November 2020 Neuroscience is based on the concept of 'eliminative reductionism', meaning many neuroscientists believe that neural analysis could replace psychological analysis. Psychologists label humans as complex systems, and believe that brain function can't simply be reduced to neural functions, but rather is influenced by a whole range of biological, social and cultural factors. Here lies an obvious tension, due to two opposing fundamental principals (reductionism vs holism), and the consequent effect on research methodology and formation of evidence.Schaal David W Naming Our Concerns about Neuroscience: A Review of Bennett and Hacker's Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior November 2005 84 3 683–692 10.1901/jeab.2005.83-05 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1389787/ 28 November 2020 0022-5002 Anthropology thumb|Ikigai And Dimensions For A Balanced Life Cultural, societal and geographical constructs of happiness hold the same communalities, what the Japanese call 'Ikigai',Oppong Thomas Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life Might Just Help You Live a More Fulfilling… https://medium.com/thrive-global/ikigai-the-japanese-secret-to-a-long-and-happy-life-might-just-help-you-live-a-more-fulfilling-9871d01992b7 Medium 4 December 2020 en 22 June 2020 the Danish 'Hygge',What is 'Hygge'? https://www.visitdenmark.com/denmark/highlights/hygge/what-hygge VisitDenmark 4 December 2020 en for example. Humans are happier when they are fit, healthy, loved, safe, comfortable and socially connected (not lonely),Berry Jenifer Endorphins: Effects and how to boost them https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320839 www.medicalnewstoday.com 10 December 2020 en 6 February 2018 which are critical considerations for workplace happiness. These factors can be measured by anthropologists through qualitative data, helping to understand the role of meaning and value in happiness, which are variables often excluded when just focusing on quantitative measures. Smaller societies feel happier if they have cultural autonomy within an advancing, modern world. Many young, single, white, males have experienced high levels of unhappiness during lockdownMen are more likely to struggle with mental health in lockdown https://happiful.com/men-struggle-mental-health-lockdown/ Happiful Magazine 9 December 2020 en 22 May 2020Real People, Real Stories launches with new research on men's mental health during lockdown https://www.samaritans.org/news/real-people-real-stories-launches-new-research-mens-mental-health-during-lockdown/ Samaritans 9 December 2020 and look forward to going to work for interpersonal contact, upon which mental health is dependent. Happiness differs between the generations: happiness at twenty is different to that at forty and at sixty as vested interests evolve and sociocentric orientations are challenged by globalisation.Mathews Gordon Izquierdo Carolina Pursuits of happiness : well-being in anthropological perspective 2010 Berghahn Books New York 978-1-84545-708-2 First paperback https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qd4gh 30 November 2020 Anthropology has been a cultural critique of disciplines and what's best for humans and what's best for the State.Uchida Yukiko Oishi Shigehiro The Happiness of Individuals and the Collective: The happiness of individuals and the collective Japanese Psychological Research January 2016 58 1 125–141 10.1111/jpr.12103 Anthropology almost keeps a restraining hand on quantitative happiness measurements.Research methods in anthropology : qualitative and quantitative approaches Bernard H. Russell 0-7591-0868-4 AltaMira Press 2006 Lanham, MD 1-27; 451-462 4th Sustainable emotional well-being of employees is a crucial contributing factor to workplace happiness; its positive effects can lead to increased productivity, resilience and engagement.Walker Harry Kavedžija Iza Values of happiness HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory December 2015 5 3 1–23 10.14318/hau5.3.002 http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64837/1/Walker_Value%20of%20Happiness.pdf 10 December 2020 Economic measures alone cannot quantify happiness, so applying an anthropological perspective could provide an overview of what makes humans happy, combining all the interdisciplinary evidence available and applying those conditions to the workplace. While the sciences, including economics, value empirical evidence, anthropology values qualitative ethnographic evidence. These differences can be overcome by combining cross-cultural statistics,Colby Benjamin N. Well-Being: A Theoretical Program American Anthropologist December 1987 89 4 879–895 10.1525/aa.1987.89.4.02a00080 8 December 2020 which offer more nuanced understandings of local differences. Conclusion Disciplines approach the epistemology and ontology of evidence in different ways, creating incongruity in what constitutes evidence and how evidence is defined, leading to interdisciplinary tensions. These contrasting beliefs pose challenges when it comes to measuring workplace happiness. While individual disciplines can provide unique perspectives, the search for clearer common ground continues. Taking a more comprehensive approach to measuring happiness, combining the subjective nature of qualitative data with quantitative data would be the ideal interdisciplinary solution. Evidence needs to be integrated holistically, but perspectivism between the disciplines slows the process of collaboration. References