Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Three Gorges Dam

Introduction { "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [ { "type": "Feature", "properties": {}, "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [ 111.003542, 30.822046 ] } } ] }The Three Gorges Dam, alternatively referred to as the Three Gorges Project, is a hydroelectric power project and dam on central China’s Yangtze River. The dam, which began construction in 1994 and concluded in 2020, is over 2,300 meters long and 185 meters high, and is the largest power station in the world, featuring 32 hydroelectric generating units on either side of the dam, as well as underground. As of November 2025, the Three Gorges Project has generated 423 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) and reduced CO2 emissions by 347 million tons, continued 150 million tons of freight volume on the river, and provided 82.4 billion cubic meters of water to downstream regions.State Council Information Office, People's Republic of China 3 November 2025 5 years on, Three Gorges project delivers all-round benefits http://english.scio.gov.cn/chinavoices/2025-11/03/content_118156274.html 14 April 2026 The project, however, is not without difficulties. Having taken over 20 years to build, the dam’s size is such that it presents significant environmental effects, both upstream and downstream, owing to the amount of water it holds back; enough to change the topography of areas around the dam, and causing significant landslides. Over a million people were displaced as a result of flooding associated with damming, resulting in changed socioeconomic opportunities and significant land loss. The project itself was controversial, having been initially proposed during the Nationalist (ROC) government prior to 1949, and delayed by the Communist (PRC) government until the 1980s, when it ignited a debate within the PRC’s State Council. Its presence has even been discussed in the security space, in particular as a target for opposing Taiwanese forces in a conflict. The Three Gorges Project, then, is a microcosm of mega-projects, particularly those done by a state with a centrally planned economy, and is a good case study as it shows a wide range of effects, from environmental, to societal, to even energy security effects.thumb|387x387px|Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, taken September 2009 Ecological and Environmental Impacts Pre-Dam River System and Baseline Conditions Prior to the construction of the Three Gorges Dam, the Yangtze River operated as a highly dynamic hydrological system characterized by seasonal flooding, substantial sediment transport, and fluctuating water levels. These processes shaped both ecological systems and human activity along the river. Flooding, while destructive, was a defining feature of the region and contributed to repeated economic losses and instability in surrounding communities.Freer R 2001 The Three Gorges project on the Yangtze river in China https://doi.org/10.1680/cien.2001.144.1.20 Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering 144 1 20-28 At the same time, this variability supported complex environmental and ecological systems. The river's natural flow regime influenced sediment distribution, habitat formation, and land use patterns. The decision to construct the dam was therefore rooted in a desire to regulate these natural processes, particularly to control flooding, while also generating hydroelectric power and improving navigation.Xu Xibao Tan Yan Yang Guishan September 2013 Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and interventions https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.05.007 Earth-Science Reviews 124 115-125 The project thus represents a shift from a naturally variable system to a highly engineered and controlled river environment. Hydrological and Sediment Changes One of the most significant consequences of the Three Gorges Project has been the alteration of hydrological and sediment dynamics. The creation of a large reservoir fundamentally changed the movement of water and sediment through the Yangtze River system. Environmental assessments consistently identify sedimentation within the reservoir as a major operational and ecological concern.Wang Jun Guo Wei Xu Hai Tao September 2014 Research on Sediment Problem in Dam Area of Three Gorges Project https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.638-640.770 Applied Mechanics and Materials 638-648 770-773 By trapping sediment upstream, the dam disrupts the natural processes that previously distributed sediment along the river. The literature emphasizes that such changes are central to understanding the broader environmental impact of the project, as sediment transport is closely linked to river morphology and ecosystem function. Environmental and Geological Impacts Beyond hydrological changes, the Three Gorges Project has introduced a range of environmental and geological effects. Studies of the reservoir area indicate measurable changes in local environmental conditions, including temperature variation associated with the presence of the reservoir.Song Zhen Liang Shunlin Feng Lian He Tao Song Xiao-Peng Zhang Lei 28 March 2017 Temperature changes in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area and linkage with Three Gorges Project https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025978 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122 9 4866-4879 While the broader climatic implications remain under investigation, these findings demonstrate that the dam has altered environmental conditions at a regional scale. Geological instability is another major concern. Research documents increased landslide risk along the reservoir's banks, driven in part by changes in water levels and soil saturation.Petley David N. 1 May 2010 Landslide disaster mitigation in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD.MM068 Mountain Research and Development 30 2 184-185 These risks require ongoing monitoring and mitigation efforts due to their potential impact on surrounding populations and infrastructure. In addition, geophysical studies show that the impoundment of large volumes of water has produced detectable changes in gravity and crustal conditions in the region.Sun Shao-an Xiang Ai-min Chong-yang Shen September 2006 Gravity change and its mechanism after the first water impoundment in Three Gorges Project https://doi.org/10.1007/s11589-006-0505-6 Acta Seismologica Sinica 19 5 522-529 These findings underscore the scale of environmental transformation associated with the project, extending beyond surface-level changes to deeper geological processes. Ecosystem-Level Impacts The environmental changes associated with the Three Gorges Project have led to broader ecosystem-level transformations. Rather than focusing on isolated outcomes, literature about the project emphasizes systemic ecological change resulting from the conversion of a free-flowing river into a managed reservoir system. Ecological impacts are identified as a central component of post-impoundment environmental outcomes, and the project is argued to have far-reaching effects on the Yangtze's original ecological environment.Lu You-mei Shang Cun-liang January 2014 The Environmental Impact of the Three Gorges Project and the Countermeasures https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280835091_The_Environmental_Impact_of_the_Three_Gorges_Project_and_the_Countermeasures Frontiers of Engineering Management 1 2 120 Additional research highlights that environmental concerns, including water quality and biodiversity conservation, have been central to debates surrounding the project.Fu Bo-Jie Wu Bing-Fang Zhou Yue-Min 8 June 2010 Three Gorges Project: Efforts and challenges for the environment https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133310370286 Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 34 6 Together, this supports the conclusion that the dam has reduced natural variability and introduced new environmental pressures, fundamentally reshaping the ecological character of the river system. Agricultural Stability and Rural Land Loss Impacts By regulating water flow and reducing the frequency of severe floods, which historically the Yangtze has suffered from, the Three Gorges Dam has the potential to stabilize agricultural activity in vulnerable regions. Recent analyses of flood control capacity demonstrates the project's ability to manage floods of varying intensities, reinforcing its role in reducing risk.Yan Qiming Jing Zhu Zhang Shanghong 9 December 2021 Flood Control Capacity of the Three Gorges Project for Different Frequency Floods https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2021.0003 Environmental Engineering Science 38 12 For agriculture, this can support more predictable production and reduce catastrophic crop loss. While the dam provides clear benefits for flood control, it has also imposed significant costs on rural populations. The creation of the reservoir submerged large areas of land and displaced millions of people, many of whom depended on agriculture for their livelihoods. Empirical research shows that displacement associated with the project had substantial economic consequences for resettled households.Tan Yan Chen Yong Graeme Hugo 1 December 2009 Displacement and Economic Consequences of the Three Gorges Project: A Case Study of Resettlers in Sichuan Province https://doi.org/10.1177/011719680901800402 Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 18 4 Further longitudinal studies demonstrated that these effects persist over long periods of time, shaping outcomes of accessing replacement land and redeveloping.Wilmsen Brooke 9 January 2018 Is Land-Based Resettlement Still Appropriate for Rural People in China? A Longitudinal Study of Displacement at the Three Gorges Dam https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12372 Development and Change 49 1 170-198 Resettlement has also been constrained by environmental capacity, with limited land availability in the reservoir region complicating efforts to restore agricultural productivity.Heggelund Gørild 26 April 2006 Resettlement Programmes and Environmental Capacity in the Three Gorges Dam Project https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2006.00474.x Development and Change 37 1 179-199 These findings indicate that agricultural impacts cannot be understood solely in terms of production, but must also account for structural changes to land distribution and rural livelihoods. Cultural and Political Impacts The Three Gorges Dam, for many people, is the ultimate expression of many aspects of civil engineering, which can be comprehended owing to its length of 2,335 meters, width of 40 meters, base width of 115 meters, and volume of 27.2 million cubic meters. Simultaneously, it uses a political testament of the superiority of China and the Chinese Communist Party. This state policy dates back to Mao Zedong and his successors, who, once in power, sought to divert the Yangtze River. This reveals that to this day, the Chinese Communist Party has never cared about environmental issues or their consequences, since the beginning of their reign, it sees them as proof to their own population that despite environmental consequences, projects such as the Three Gorges Dam can affect the Earth's rotation, and has the ability to have millions of citizens relocated. As of 2008, approximately 1.25 million people had been displaced as a result of the Three Gorges Period over a 16-year period; now that number is estimated to be over 1.3 million people. With the development of the dam, 1,711 villages, 356 communes, 116 towns, and 20 cities were submerged under the rising waters of the reservoir, leaving residents from three counties (Wanzhou, Fengjie, and Yunyang), disproportionately affected.Jackson Sukhan Sleigh Adrian June 2000 Resettlement for China's Three Gorges Dam: socio-economic impact and institutional tensions https://www.jstor.org/stable/48609389 Communist and Post-Communist Studies 33 2 223-241 JSTOR +Displaced population in Three Gorges Dam areaAdministrative unitTotal populationNo. of displaced persons (% of total)Chongqing City3,270,00013,500 (<1%)Fuling Prefecture2,240,000126,700 (6%)Qianjiang Prefecture470,0008,400 (2%)Wanxian Prefecture7,290,000571,000 (8%)Hubei Province1,730,000126,900 (7%)All 19 counties15,000,000846,578 (6%) +Resettlement plansHuang Youliang Lin Wenshang Li Shan Ning Yan November 2018 Social Impacts of Dam-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: A Comparative Case Study in China https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/11/4018 Sustainability 10 11 4018PlansTownLossCompensationNear-resettledGangkou, Qinaglong, Zhufeng, Jialu, FangtangFarmland, forestland, houses and other propertiesSmall proportion of land for land compensation Monetary compensation People-built house and government-built community facilitiesFar-resettledJuntianhuFarmland, forestland, houses and other propertiesAlmost equal farmland and forestland Monetary compensation Government-built houses and community facilities National Security and Strategic Considerations Energy Security and National Safety China's energy distribution has changed as its economy continues to develop and become more diversified. As of 2022, coal power remained the primary source of electricity generation, occupying about 61% of total output.International Energy Administration 2022 China: Sources of electricity generation (2022) https://www.iea.org/countries/china/electricity 13 April 2026 iea.org Hydropower, which the Three Gorges Project contributes to, is the single largest renewable source of electricity in China, representing about 16% of total capacity. Owing to the Three Gorges Dam's size, cost, and long timeline, it is considered vital to national defense and China's energy security, playing a role in the Belt and Road Project, launched by CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping in 2013.Demir Tarik 2025 Three gorges dam in the framework of China's national security https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr/book/security-in-eurasia/chapter/three-gorges-dam-in-the-framework-of-chinas-national-security Security in Eurasia: Threats, Challenges and Opportunities 109-119 Istanbul University Press Since construction, the dam has controlled more than 50 floods (as of 2020), intercepting more than 150 billion cubic maters of water, fully 20% of which was from a 2020 "mega-flood" of the Yangtze.Sun Yuqian April 2025 Construction and Impact Analysis of the Three Gorges Dam https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390708875_Construction_and_Impact_Analysis_of_the_Three_Gorges_Dam Highlights in Science Engineering and Technology 137 91-98 Due to this role and its size, however, a few structural and safety issues have emerged. During construction in 2003, the dam's construction inspection group found around 80 hairline cracks in the dam's concrete, which were quickly repaired, but fueled criticism of the dam, in particular concerns that an accident or dam failure would spark a catastrophe downriver.13 June 2003 Cracks found in Three Gorges Dam CNN https://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/06/13/china.threegorges/index.html 13 April 2026 Officials in 2020 also warned during the "mega-flood" that certain structures on the dam had "deformed slightly," though they were peripheral.Chen Frank 21 July 2020 Three Gorges Dam deformed but safe, say operators Asia Times https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/three-gorges-dam-deformed-but-safe-say-operators/ 13 April 2026 Very few issues since then have appeared, but repeated floods, owing to climate change, will continue to challenge the dam's physical abilities. Strategic Vulnerabilities The Three Gorges Project’s importance and size has also attracted significant security concerns, both from conventional attack and from possible terrorist threats. The PRC’s decades-long conflict with Taiwan (the Republic of China), whom it considers to be “separatists,” has spread to the Three Gorges Dam, when a 2004 U.S. Department of Defense report cited the dam as a potential target for Taiwanese forces in the event of a wider conflict and strikes on mainland China.U.S. Department of Defense 2004 Annual Report on the Military Power of the People's Republic of China http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/d20040528PRC.pdf dead https://web.archive.org/web/20090806235538/http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/d20040528PRC.pdf 6 August 2009 13 April 2026 In response, a People’s Liberation Army general condemned the statement, warning that “it will have the exact opposite of the desired effect,” if done, and that the dam “will not collapse and cannot be destroyed.”17 June 2004 China flexes its muscles over Taiwan The Sydney Morning Herald https://www.smh.com.au/world/china-flexes-its-muscles-over-taiwan-20040617-gdj541.html 13 April 2026 In 2016, debates about the PRC’s nuclear power projects revealed that the Three Gorges Project was likely resistant to nuclear attack, per an interview with an official of the China Society for Hydropower Engineering, who claimed that its design as a concrete gravity dam made it sturdy against such an attack.Wong Catherine 22 March 2026 China's Three Gorges Dam 'can survive nuclear attack' says nation's hydropower expert after academics raise safety concerns South China Morning Post https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/1928774/chinas-three-gorges-dam-can-survive-nuclear-attack-says-nations live https://archive.ph/Z14Vf 21 January 2023 In 2017, discussion about Taiwan targeting the dam regained popularity after an American analyst with the think tank Project 2049 wrote a book claiming Taiwan would be invaded in 2020. So-called “netizens” in Taiwan began speculating that cruise missiles such as the Hsiung Feng II-E could burst the dam, causing flooding, earthquakes, and thousands of casualties. An advisor to the Taiwanese Ministry of National Defense (MND), however, stated that such speculation was ridiculous owing to the dam’s special high-strength reinforced concrete, which allegedly could even withstand a nuclear strike.Everington Keoni 6 October 2017 Can Taiwanese missiles destroy Three Gorges Dam? Only tiny dents: expert Taiwan News https://web.archive.org/web/20211227025640/https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3269169 live 13 April 2026 No known terrorist threats have been made or attempted against the Three Gorges Dam, but Chinese authorities prepared against such vulnerabilities anyway. As of 2006, when the dam was still under construction, the project had a dedicated detachment of the People’s Armed Police, the PRC’s paramilitary police force; and had deployed helicopters, patrol boats, and explosive ordnance disposal units nearby, conducting anti-terrorist exercises with them.19 May 2006 Beijing strives to ensure security of Three Gorges Dam against attacks Taipei Times https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2006/05/19/2003308974 13 April 2026 Timeline 1919: Sun Yat-sen, founder of the Republic of China, proposes damming the Three Gorges.Sanjuan Thierry Béreau Rémi 2001 The Three Gorges Dam: Between State Power, Technical Immensity, and Regional Implications https://shs.cairn.info/journal-herodote-2001-3-page-19?lang=en Hérodote 102 3 19-56 1932: The Nationalist KMT government, under Chiang Kai-shek, forms a construction committee to study a dam in the Three Gorges area. It proposes construction of a dam in Gezhouba, only a few miles downstream from the Three Gorges, near the city of Yichang in Hubei Province. 1936: The Society for Protection of Yangtze Water Resources, a governmental body, requests an unnamed Austrian engineer to study water resources in the Three Gorges; he suggests postponement due to the impending Sino-Japanese War. 1944: John Savage, head design engineer for the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, undertakes a survey of the area and drafts a proposal for a "Yangtze River Project." 1946: The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the Nationalist government sign a contract commissioning U.S. experts to design the dam. It is quickly abandoned due to the Chinese Civil War. 1950: The new government of the People's Republic of China, led by Mao Zedong, creates the Yangtze River Water Conservancy Commission, later renamed the Yangtze Valley Planning Office. Hydrological surveys begin, concluding the need for a dam, particularly after disastrous 1954 floods. 1956: Mao Zedong, the PRC's leader, writes a poem entitled "Swimming" after the 1954 Yangtze floods, expressing his desire for a dam on the Yangtze. Mao, in the early days of the PRC, supported the idea of a damming project.Berkman Patience Spring 1998 The Three Gores: Dam Energy, the Environment, and the New Emperors https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-three-gorges-dam-energy-the-environment-and-the-new-emporers/ Education About Asia 3 1 1958: Mao, as well as Premier Zhou Enlai, underline the urgency of a Three Gorges project. The Ministry of Water Resources and Electric Power (hereafter MWR) is assigned to prepare the project. May 1959: Li Rui, head of the Bureau for Hydroelectricity, who was against the idea of the damming project, was forced out, having been labeled an "enemy of the revolution," for supporting Marshal Peng Dehuai, who presented a major threat to Mao's rule. The project was thus further delayed due to the Cultural Revolution. 1970: A severe power shortage hits the PRC. Authorities limit attention to the Gezhouba Dam project, however, placing the Three Gorges project on the agenda for the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1981-1985). 1979: Li Rui returns after being rehabilitated, proposes smaller dams on the Yangtze's tributaries. The MWR approves the 1959 decision for the Three Gorges project and selects Sandouping for the project site. The Party Secretary for Sichuan Province opposes the idea, but Deng Xiaopeng, PRC leader and CCP General Secretary, endorses it. 1984: The PRC's State Council approves a proposal from the State Planning Commission for the construction of the dam. A policy advisory committee, however, disagrees and releases a negative report, beginning a long political debate about the project. 1986: Premier Li Peng and the State Council undertake a new feasibility study, handing responsibility to the MWR. The resulting 1988 report is supportive of the dam's construction. 1990: Deputy Premier Zou Jiahua and a supervisory committee approve the feasibility report. 1992: The 7th National People's Congress of the PRC officially approves the project. December 1994: Construction officially begins on the dam, after months of planning.12 April 2026 Three Gorges Dam Schedule https://www.yangtzeriver.org/threegorges_dam/schedule.htm 12 April 2026 Yangtze River Cruise November 1997: The Yangtze River is successfully dammed for the first time. November 2002: The dam's diversion tunnel, designed to reroute flow, itself is dammed. June 2003: Ship locks are completed and opened for navigation. July-November 2003: First three power generation sets, out of 14 on the left bank, are connected to grid and begin to generate electricity. September 2005: All 14 power generation sets on the left bank become operational. February-March 2006: Clearing and final construction to close the dam begins. May 2006: First power generation set, out of 12 on the right bank, begin construction. Dam project is officially completed. October 2008: All 26 generating units, on left and right sides, begin operation.5 July 2012 Three Gorges Dam now at full capacity China Daily https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-07/05/content_15550639.htm 12 April 2026 August-September 2009: Tests are done to raise the water level, acceptance checks are passed. July 2012: Final 6 generators, which are underground, begin operation. This brings the total number of generating units in the Three Gorges Project to 32. December 2015: A ship lift / elevator finishes, which shortens transit time for vessels waiting at the dam.Zhang Jun 14 January 2016 世界最大“升船电梯”三峡大坝试验成功 Chu Tianjin News https://web.archive.org/web/20160222012223/http://news.cnhubei.com/xw/jj/201601/t3513977.shtml 12 April 2026 November 2020: The MWR and the National Development and Reform Commission announce that all construction tasks for the dam are complete.1 November 2020 三峡工程完成整体竣工验收全部程序 [The Three Gorges Project has completed all the procedures for the overall completion and acceptance] CCTV Network https://news.cctv.com/2020/11/01/ARTIQQbqCeXdwjtQ88o0TrnA201101.shtml 12 April 2026 References