Conlang/Appendix/Glossary

__TOC__ Entries should be succinct, lucid, and preferably provide big-picture insights. Generally, outgoing links from this book should appear only at the ends of glossary entries (mediated by /Glossary/note); the rest of the book should link to glossary entries via /ref. Terms Here are some basic conlanging and linguistics terms. It's valuable to note when a term is used in different senses that could cause confusion. This glossary seeks to give fair warning of discrepancies between mutually incompatible dialects of technical jargon, rather than setting down a single self-consistent dialect that would then be inconsistent with various usages encountered in the field (which happens a lot in any technical subject that's been around for a while). Terminology often works best within a limited framework; succinctly explaining when it doesn't work so well is big-picture insight that may be difficult to obtain from enthusiastic, or simplified, explanations within its favored framework. If a term could be listed either in adjective or noun form (as inflectional or inflection), prefer whichever feels more natural and provides smoothest coverage. An adjectival entry should list definitions for the various kinds of nouns it can modify; but if the adjectival form has a generic sense and then specifics to be mentioned for some nouns and not others, it may work better to list the noun form and then list specific adjective-noun combinations. Examples: fusion wouldn't cover fusional language, but fusional covers language and implies the sense of fusion. there would be nothing to say about derivational affix beyond "an affix that's derivational", but there is more to say about derivational morpheme, and the sense of derivational follows from the process, so it's easier to list derivation and derivational morpheme than to try to fit everything under adjective derivational. If a term doesn't list any sections of the book where it is discussed, although it could be something that doesn't need coverage in the book proper, or something that is covered but not yet linked from here, it could also signal a topic waiting for coverage. Named theories and models are also listed here; both those traditionally treated as proper nouns, such as Optimality Theory, and those not, such as universal grammar or word-and-paradigm morphology. abjad term A script whose symbols represent consonant sounds. Vowels may be omitted altogether, but often are optionally representable by diacritics on the consonant symbols, and provision may be made for representing vowels in exceptional cases where the vowel does not accompany a consonant. In most such systems, the vowel follows the consonant. Contrast alphabet, abugida. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Abjads ablative case ablative term A case sometimes indicating removal from the marked noun, in which case it is a variety of locative. In English, likely introduced by preposition from. Usage varies greatly between languages. The term ablative comes from a Latin verb meaning take away. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Ablative caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/ablative-case SIL ablaut vowel mutation term Change of a word form by altering a vowel (or vowels). The more usual form of apophony, also called vowel mutation; contrast consonant mutation. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Apophony w:AblautWikipedia absolutive term 1. Of a noun, absolutive case. 2. Of a language, ergative-absolutive. linguistics absolutive case term 1. A case indicating the patient of a transitive verb or subject of an intransitive verb in an ergative-absolutive alignment pattern. 2. A case indicating the subject of an intransitive verb in a tripartite alignment pattern. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments abugida alphasyllabary term A script whose symbols represent consonant sounds with default associated vowels, and diacritics to change these vowel defaults. Contrast abjad, syllabary. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Abugidas accusative term 1. Of a noun, accusative case. 2. Of a language, nominative-accusative. linguistics accusative case term A case indicating the patient of a transitive verb in a nominative-accusative or tripartite alignment pattern. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments adjective term A word that modifies a noun. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Adjectives and adverbs adposition adpositional term A preposition, postposition, or (more rarely) circumposition. linguistics w:AdpositionWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/adposition SIL adverb term A word that modifies any part of language except a noun — verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, clauses, sentences. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Adjectives and adverbs adverbial clause term A dependent clause that qualifies anything except a noun. Contrast relative clause. linguistics affix affixation term A word-part that attaches to words and modifies their meaning. More narrowly concerned with form, and thus carries less conceptual baggage, than related term bound morpheme. linguistics Beginner/Words#Morphology Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Morphological affricate affricates term a consonant that starts plosive and releases fricative, usually with the same place of articulation. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Affricate consonantWikipedia agent term A thematic role: The participant of a situation that carries out an action. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Argument roles agglutinative agglutinative language agglutination term Of a language, combining morphemes into words without changing their forms. May or may not imply synthetic, depending on who you ask. Contrasts with fusional, but affixation doesn't have to be either agglutination or fusion. The concept of morpheme works more smoothly in agglutinative than in fusional languages. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar#Morphology and Syntax allophone term Any of the phones representing a phoneme in a given language. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#The phoneme/allophone distinction w:AllophoneWikipedia alphabet alphabetic term A script whose symbols represent speech sounds, including vowels. If only consonants are represents, that's either an abjad or an abugida. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Alphabets alphasyllabary Another name for an abugida. altlang term Alternative history language. An artlang meant to be what some historical natlang would have evolved into in some alternative history. conlanging Types#Altlangs alveolar term Of a consonant, having primary articulation by constricting airflow between the alveolar ridge and the tongue. May be apical or laminal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Alveolar consonantWikipedia alveolar ridge term The ridge at the top of the mouth just behind the teeth and before the hard palate. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Alveolar ridgeWikipedia anadew anadewism term The phenomenon of discovering that a weird, supposedly original feature in your conlang already exists in some natural language. Coined in recognition that natural languages regularly turn out to be even more bizarre than what conlangers can devise. Acronym for (sic) another natlang already dunnit except worse. conlanging FAQ#Anadew analytic analytic language term Of a language, not inflect inflecting words for their grammatical relationships. Says nothing necessary about morpheme/word ratio, nor about other kinds of inflections; cf. synthetic, isolating. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar#Morphology and Syntax anaphora anaphor antecedent term 1. The act of referring with an expression to some referent that depends on context. The referring expression is the anaphor. See pronoun. 2. More noarrowly, when the reference depends on a preceding expression. The preceding expression is the antecedent. Contrast cataphora, postcedent. linguistics w:Anaphora (linguistics)Wikipedia apical term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the tip of the tongue (the apex). See coronal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Apical consonantWikipedia apophony mutation term Change of a word form by altering a phoneme (or phonemes). Most often a change of vowel, called ablaut or vowel mutation; changing a consonant is consonant mutation. More often inflectional, sometimes derivational. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Apophony w:ApophonyWikipedia a posteriori term Of a feature, borrowed from natural languages rather than invented. Of a conlang, mostly composed of a posteriori features. conlanging Types#A priori and a posteriori a priori term Of a feature, invented rather than borrowed from natural languages. Of a conlang, mostly composed of a priori features. conlanging Types#A priori and a posteriori approximant approximants term Of a consonant, having manner of articulation manner of primary articulation by constricting airflow (so it's not a vowel) but not enough, or in such a way as, to cause turbulence (so it's not a fricative). All approximants are either liquids or glides; they're sonorants just below the vowels in the sonority hierarchy. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Manner w:Approximant consonantWikipedia arbitrariness of the sign arbitrariness term The notion in semiotics that signs have no direct connection to the concepts they represent. Principle heavily relied upon to justify clean separation between different levels of language description, by Ferdinand de Saussure and since; even Noam Chomsky, while mostly avoiding semiotics, has invoked arbitrariness. The notion of phonaestheme violates arbitrariness of the sign. linguistics w:Sign (linguistics)#The Concept of ArbitrarinessWikipedia articulator active articulator passive articulator term Of a consonant, an organ used to constrict the airflow at a point of articulation. Active if it moves, passive if it doesn't; the tongue is especially commonly used as an active articulator. linguistics w:Speech organWikipedia artlang term Artistic language. A conlang created as art. conlanging Types#Artistic languages aspect grammatical aspect lexical aspect term Structure of the action of a verb with respect to time. 1. The unmodified term usually refers to grammatical aspect, which is arrangement of the action indicated by inflection of the verb. Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#Aspect w:Grammatical aspectWikipedia http://conlangery.com/2011/09/26/conlangery-17-aspect/ Conlangery 2. Lexical aspect is a property of the verb independent of inflection, necessarily involving a smaller set of possibilities since it excludes details of a particular instance of the verb. http://conlangery.com/2019/03/04/conlangery-137-telicity-and-lexical-aspect/ Conlangery linguistics assibilation term A sound change in which a consonant becomes sibilant. Cf. palatalization. linguistics w:AssibilationWikipedia assimilation term In phonology, change of a phone to sound more like another nearby phone. May be either regressive assimilation regressive or progressive assimilation progressive; synchronic or diachronic. See harmony. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Sandhi rules#Assimilation Intermediate/History/Common sound changes#Assimilation w:Assimilation (phonology)Wikipedia Austronesian alignment term An alignment system with many voices that do not reduce the verb's valency, allowing most any noun argument to be promoted to become the subject. See also trigger system. conlanging Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Austronesian alignment auxlang term Auxiliary language. A conlang meant as a common second language for people with different native languages. conlanging Types#Auxiliary languages back term Of a vowel or semivowel, having the highest part of the tongue toward the back of the mouth. linguistics w:Back vowelWikipedia backness term Of a vowel, how far back in the mouth the highest part of tongue is positioned when pronouncing it. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Backness Linguistics/Phonetics#Vowels w:Vowel backnessWikipedia bound morpheme term A morpheme that cannot occur in a word without other morphemes; such as English plural morpheme -s. Similar term affix is more narrowly concerned with form, thus carries less conceptual baggage. Cf. inflectional morpheme inflectional/derivational morpheme. Contrast free morpheme. linguistics boustrophedon term Of writing, alternating between lines left-to-right and right-to-left. The word is borrowed from Ancient Greek, meaning ox-turn-fashion (turning in the manner of an ox when plowing a field). In some boustrophedon writing, the glyphs are reflected right-to-left on lines going opposite directions; in rongorongo the glyphs are rotated 180 degrees between lines, a variant sometimes called reverse boustrophedon that, as far as we've heard, occurs in no other natural script. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Writing direction w:BoustrophedonWikipedia calligraphy term The art of visually beautiful writing. The roots of the word mean beautiful writing. linguistics Conart/Calligraphy w:CalligraphyWikipedia http://conlangery.com/2012/05/14/conlangery-50-the-technology-of-literacy/ Conlangery case term Of a noun, its grammatical function in the sentence. Nouns are often inflection inflected for case. Case distinctions vary by language. Case categorization is typically similar to semantic thematic relation but coarser-grained. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case cataphora postcedent term anaphora when the reference depends on a following expression. The following expression is the postcedent. linguistics w:CataphoraWikipedia central term 1. Of a vowel or semivowel, having backness intermediate between front and back. 2. Of a consonant, not lateral. When a sound is described as a semivowel, central refers to backness; whereas when the same sound is descried as an approximant, central means not lateral. linguistics w:Central vowelWikipedia centum language centum languages term Any Indo-European language in which the palatalization palatovelars of Proto-Indo-European merged with the plain velars. Contrast satem language; the two types are named after the words for hundred in respectively Latin and Sanskrit, which illustrate the contrasting phonetic evolution patterns. linguistics w:Centum and satem languagesWikipedia circumposition term A pair of words that mark the beginning and end of a modifying phrase. linguistics clause term A grammatical structure expressing a single complete proposition — a verb and its noun arguments, with modifiers but not including any related proposition. Compare dependent clause. linguistics click clicks term A lingual ingressive. Typically quite loud, though softer in a few of the natlangs that have them. Found in some natlangs in southern Africa and a few in eastern Africa, and in Damin. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Clicks w:Click consonantWikipedia coarticulation coarticulated co-articulated term 1. Of a consonant, having more than one place of articulation. See secondary articulation, doubly articulated. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Co-articulated consonantWikipedia 2. assimilation coda term The part of a syllable after the nucleus, if any. Consonantal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables#Components of a syllable Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics#Syllable Structure w:Syllable codaWikipedia conjugation conjugate term 1. Inflection of a verb. 2. A paradigm for a verb. linguistics conlang term Constructed language. A language deliberately invented by someone. conlanging FAQ#Is there a conlanging community? consonant consonants consonantal term 1. A speech sound with constricted air flow through the vocal tract. Distinguished by voicing and by how and where the air flow is restricted — manner of articulation manner and place of articulation place of articulation. Contrast with vowels, which have higher sonority. Beginner/Sounds Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Consonants 2. A glyph written to represent a consonant sound. linguistics consonant harmony coronal harmony term Assimilation between non-adjacent consonants. Much less common than vowel harmony. A relatively common form is coronal harmony, whereby coronal fricatives (such as /s/ and /S/) assimilate to the same place of articulation. linguistics w:Consonant harmonyWikipedia consonant mutation term Change of a word form by altering a consonant (or consonants). May indicate grammatical information or reflect grammatical context. Form of apophony less common than ablaut. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Apophony w:Consonant mutationWikipedia coronal term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the front of the tongue. Contrast dorsal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Coronal consonantWikipedia corpus linguistics corpus text corpus term Study of language by statistical analysis of large bodies (corpora) of text, generally without making any prior structural assumptions (cf. grammar). For a sense of relative scale, the Brown Corpus from 1961 is about a million words in 500 texts. linguistics w:Corpus linguisticsWikipedia cranberry morpheme term A bound morpheme that has no meaning of its own but distinguishes words; such as then cran- in English cranberry. Also called fossilized morpheme. linguistics creaky voice vocal fry term Voicing with the sides of the larynx —the arytenoid cartilages— pulled closer together, reducing airflow and loosening the vocal folds. Also called by a variety of other names, in various contexts, such as vocal fry. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables#Stress and Tone w:Creaky voiceWikipedia cursive term Of a script, using symbols meant to be easy to write rapidly by hand. The term is also used for modern cursive handwriting in which consecutive letters within a word usually flow one into another. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Writing direction dative case term A case indicating a recipient or beneficiary. Typically the indirect object; in English, often introduced by preposition to or for. The term dative comes from a Latin verb meaning give. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Dative caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/dative-case SIL debuccalization term A form of lenition in which a consonant's place of articulation changes, typically moving back toward the glottis. Latin root buuca means mouth; thus, removal from the mouth (i.e., removal to the glottis). linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Sandhi rules#Lenition w:DebuccalizationWikipedia declension decline term 1. Inflection of a noun. 2. A paradigm for a noun. linguistics dependent dependents term An element of a compound grammatical structure that is not the head. See also dependent clause. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Heads and dependents dependent clause independent clause term A clause qualifying another element of the sentence, rather than being a sentence in itself. May or may not be the same as subordinate clause. linguistics derivation derivational morphological derivation term Changing the form of a word to create another word — altering its meaning or grammatical class. Cf. derivational morpheme. Contrast inflection. linguistics derivational morpheme term A bound morpheme that changes the core meaning or class of the word. Contrast inflectional morpheme. linguistics diachronic term 1. Of language change, taking place over time. linguistics 2. Of linguistic study, concerned with language change over time. linguistics Intermediate/History w:Historical linguisticsWikipedia 3. Of a conlang, having its own internal fictional history. conlanging Types#Diachronic languages Contrast synchronic. diacritic diacritics term A glyph whose function is to modify another glyph. Cf. abjad, abugida. linguistics Appendix/CXS#Diacritics and suprasegmentalsAppendix/CXS diglossia term A situation where two dialects of a language are used by a single population. In the usual case, one dialect is vernacular and the other formal. The formal dialect is often an earlier form of the language, is used in writing, and is not natively spoken. linguistics FAQ#What's a "Language"? w:Diglossiawikipedia diphthong term A combination of two vowels forming the nucleus of a syllable. One of the two is always weaker, and may even be treated as an approximant; if the first is weaker, it may be called an on-glide, and the diphthong is rising; if the second is weaker, an off-glide, and falling. See also glide. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Common sounds#Diphthongs w:DiphthongWikipedia direct object term An object directly affected by the verb. Contrast indirect object. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case discourse term Instances of language falling outside the traditional structured sentence; variously longer than a single sentence, involving multiple conversants, and/or in actual speech rather than polished prose. linguistics disfix subtractive morpheme term An inflection that removes part of the word form it's applied to. May be described, with additional conceptual baggage, as a subtractive morpheme (at some stretch to the notion of morpheme, since a subtractive morpheme is not only bound morpheme bound but has no form of its own). linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Common sounds#Morphomes w:DisfixWikipedia ditransitive term 1. Of a clause, relating three noun arguments to a verb. The arguments are typically called the agent, theme, and recipient. 2. Of a verb, mediating a ditransitive clause. Cf. intransitive, transitive. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment domed term Of a consonant, pronounced with the tongue bunched up. linguistics w:Tongue shapeWikipedia dorsal term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the back of the tongue (dorsum). Contrast coronal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Dorsal consonantWikipedia doubly articulated term Of a consonant, characterized by two airflow restrictions of the same manner of articulation manner, which are therefore both considered primary articulations. A special case of co-articulated. linguistics w:Doubly articulated consonantWikipedia duplifix term Reduplication, when viewed as an affix. linguistics w:SimulfixWikipedia egressive egressives term Of a speech sound, produced with an outward airflow though the mouth and/or nose. The outward airflow may be produced either by the lungs (pulmonic), by the glottis (glottalic), or by the tongue (lingual); most human speech sounds are pulmonic egressive. Contrast ingressive. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ingressive and mixed airstreams w:Egressive soundWikipedia ejective ejective consonant term Of a consonant, produced by an airstream from the glottis closed and moving rapidly upward. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ejectives emoticon emoticons term A sequence of characters depicting a facial expression, used to express emotion. Most often punctuation characters. Modern use of emoticons in electronic discussion is generally traced to a proposal in 1982. linguistics FAQ#What's a "Language"? w:Emoticonwikipedia endocentric term of a compound grammatical structure, having a head. Contrast exocentric. linguistics englang engelang term Engineered language. A conlang designed to meet objective criteria. conlanging Types#Engineered languages epiglottal epiglottals term Of a consonant, having primary articulation in the lower pharynx, by constricting airflow via the aryepiglottal folds at the top of the larynx against the epiglottis. May be classed as radical or laryngeal. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Radicals w:Epiglottal consonantWikipedia epiglottis term A flap in the lower pharynx protecting the larynx, so food doesn't go down the wrong way when swallowed. Place of articulation for epiglottals. linguistics w:Epiglottiswikipedia ergative term 1. Of a noun, ergative case. 2. Of a language, ergative-absolutive. linguistics ergative-absolutive ergativity term Of a language, following an alignment pattern that treats the patient of a transitive verb like the subject of an intransitive verb (absolutive case), while distinguishing them from the agent of a transitive verb (ergative case). The second most common alignment pattern amongst natural languages; much less common than nominative-accusative. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments ergative case term A case indicating the agent of a transitive verb in an ergative-absolutive or tripartite alignment pattern. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments euroclone term An auxlang whose vocabulary is entirely Indo-European, often entirely Romance. conlanging Types#Auxiliary languages evidentiality term Of a verb, how the speaker knows the action happened. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology exocentric headless term of a compound grammatical structure, not having a head. Some linguistic theories require every compound structure to have a head. Contrast exocentric. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Heads and dependents fauxlang term Fictional auxlang. A supposed auxlang created by a character in a fictional setting. conlanging Types#In-between goals finite verb finite non-finite verb non-finite term A verb form that inflects for tense and person, and can serve as the verb in an independent clause. From the Latin finitus, meaning in this context definite, because it inflects for person. linguistics flap term A consonant whose manner of articulation manner of primary articulation momentarily blocks airflow by throwing the active articulator against the passive articulator. Differs from a stop because the block is instantaneous so there's no pressure build-up; differs from a single-contact trill because the articular is moved by muscular contraction, rather than by vibration due to the airflow. Commonly synonymous with tap; if not, the difference may be that the articulators in a flap strike tangentially whereas in a tap they strike directly. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Flap consonantWikipedia free morpheme term A morpheme that can occur alone as a word; contrast bound morpheme. linguistics fricative fricatives spirant spirants term 1. Of a consonant, having manner of articulation manner of primary articulation by forcing airflow through a narrow enough opening to produce turbulence. A glottal fricative may instead be called a glottal transition, avoiding awkward questions about whether the sound is a consonant or a vowel and whether the vocal cords themselves are technically part of the vocal tract. The word fricative is from a Latin verb meaning rub. Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Manner Appendix/CXS#Consonant soundsCXS w:Fricative consonantWikipedia 2. Of a vowel, varying usage refers to some part of a blending between a fricative consonant and an immediately following vowel; typically, between a sibilant and a height high vowel. The term "fricative vowel" is sometimes used for the consonant colored by its anticipation of the vowel, sometimes for the vowel ostensibly colored by residual turbulence from the consonant, and sometimes for the different phenomenon of a syllablic consonant syllabic fricative consonant. w:Fricative vowelWikipedia linguistics front term Of a vowel or semivowel, having the highest part of the tongue toward the front of the mouth. linguistics w:Front vowelWikipedia fusional fusional language fusion term Of a language, having the property that a single affix may indicate multiple derivational/inflectional changes; e.g. a Latin noun suffix which may indicate at once gender case and number. Fusional may or may not imply synthetic, depending on who you ask. Contrasts with agglutinative, but affixation doesn't have to be agglutination or fusion. The concept of morpheme is more awkward in fusional languages than agglutinative ones. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar#Morphology and Syntax futhark See runes. gemination term The lengthening of a consonant. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms Advanced/Sounds/Common sounds#Gemination gender term A way of classifying nouns into groups. May be completely unrelated to sexual gender. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology genitive case term A case typically indicating the marked noun owns another noun, or that the other noun is attributed to the marked noun. Similar to the possessive case in English. The term genitive comes from a Latin word meaning origin/birth. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Genitive caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/genitive-case SIL glide glides semivowel semivowels term 1. An approximant that differs from a vowel only by being slightly more closed. Linguists may differ on whether some approximants correspond to a vowel, hence whether they should count as glides. It's generally agreed that lateral approximants are not glides. 2. An approximant that occurs in the transition to or from the nucleus of a syllable. 3. A vowel treated as a consonant, i.e., not the nucleus of a syllable. See diphthong. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:SemivowelWikipedia glottal glottals term Of a consonant, having primary articulation at the glottis. The terminology here is debated, in that the vocal tract is ostensibly what the sound passes through after being generated at the glottis, thus does not include the glottis, making the glottis ineligible as a place of articulation; but natlangs often, not always, treat these speech sounds as consonants rather than vowels. See glottalized, glottalic. linguistics w:Glottal consonantWikipedia glottalic term Of a speech sound, produced with airflow initiated by the glottis. Contrast pulmonic, lingual. The term glottal is also occasionally used for glottal, generally not for glottalized. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ingressive and mixed airstreams w:Glottalic consonantWikipedia glottalized term Of a speech sound, having its basic identity colored by a partial or total closure of the glottis. A secondary articulation. See creaky voice. linguistics w:GlottalizationWikipedia glottis term The opening of the vocal cords; in practice, the vocal cords themselves. See glottal, glottalic. linguistics w:GlottisWikipedia glyph term An elemental symbol used in writing. linguistics Beginner/Writing#Glyphs w:GlyphWikipedia grammar term The study of the rules governing the use of a given language. linguistics Beginner/Grammar Intermediate/Grammar Advanced/Grammar grooved sulcalized sulcalization term Of a consonant, pronounced with the sides of the tongue raised so that airflow is a narrow stream directed at the teeth. See sibilant. linguistics w:SulcalizationWikipedia hard palate term The front of the roof of the mouth. Lined with bone (technically, the bone itself is the hard palate), whereas the back of the roof of the mouth is soft tissue, the velum. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Hard palatewikipedia harmony term In linguistics, assimilation between non-adjacent sounds. The term is not usually used without specifying the type(s) of sound(s) involved. Most common is vowel harmony; see also vowel-consonant harmony, consonant harmony. linguistics w:Vowel harmony#Other types of harmonyWikipedia head term The element of a compound grammatical structure that primarily defines the nature of the structure. Most often the structure is a phrase, in which case the head is a word (such as the preposition in a prepositional phrase); but also, if a word is viewed as a collection of morphemes, the head of the word would be a morpheme. Other elements of the structure are called dependents. Especially associated with universal grammar, but the term head can be used descriptively without that conceptual framework. See endocentric. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Heads and dependents w:Head (linguistics)Wikipedia https://www.let.rug.nl/~hoeksema/heads.pdf paper head-final left-branching term Of an endocentric grammatical structure, having its head at the end. Sometimes called left-branching. Contrast head-initial. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Heads and dependents head-initial right-branching term Of an endocentric grammatical structure, having its head at the start. Sometimes called right-branching. Contrast head-final. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Heads and dependents headless See exocentric. height vowel height term Of a vowel, how open the mouth is when pronouncing it. Termed high or low for how far the jaw drops, thus low for more open, high for less. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Height Linguistics/Phonetics#Vowels w:Vowel heightWikipedia hieroglyphs hieroglyph hieroglyphics hieroglyphic term Any of certain particularly ancient scripts whose symbols appear to be pictograms. Generally the term has become attached to a script before it was deciphered. The term hieroglyphic comes from roots meaning sacred writing. The classic example is Egyptian hieroglyphs; others include Cretan hieroglyphs Cretan, Anatolian hieroglyphs Anatolian, and Mayan hieroglyphs Mayan. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Writing direction wikt:hieroglyphic#EnglishWiktionary IAL term International Auxillary Language. An auxlang intended for use on an international scale. Auxlangs are almost always IALs, to the point where the two terms are often treated as synonyms. conlanging Types#Auxiliary languages ideogram ideograph ideography term A written symbol representing an idea/concept. A script made up of logograms is am ideographic system. An ideogram provides no information about the sounds used to express its meaning. In this inclusive sense, most logograms are ideograms. The term ideogram is sometimes used in a more exclusive sense to mean a symbol representing an idea independent of language (potentially raising questions about the nature of written language). linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Types of Script wikt:ideogram#EnglishWiktionary incorporation noun incorporation term Formation of a specialized verb by means of a compound lexeme joining the verb with an adverb or with its direct object. Often associated with polysynthesis. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Forming words#Polysynthesis w:Incorporation (linguistics)Wikipedia indirect object term An object indirectly affected by the verb. Contrast direct object. linguistics Indo-European Indo-European language Indo-European languages term A family of related languages historically spoken in India, Europe, and points between. Reconstructed common ancestor Proto-Indo-European. linguistics w:Indo-European languagesWikipedia inessive case term A locative case indicating location within the marked noun. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Inessive caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/inessive-case SIL infix infixation term An affix that attaches to the middle of a word. Contrast prefix, suffix. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Infixes inflection inflectional inflect term Changing the form of a word to indicate a grammatical category such as number or case, without altering the word's core meaning or grammatical class. Cf. paradigm. Contrast derivation. linguistics inflectional morpheme term A bound morpheme that does not alter the core meaning or class of the word. Contrast derivational morpheme. linguistics infraglottic cavity See laryngeal cavity. ingressive ingressives term Of a speech sound, produced with an inward airflow though the mouth and/or nose. The inward airflow may be produced either by the lungs (pulmonic), by the glottis (glottalic), or by the tongue (lingual). Contrast egressive. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ingressive and mixed airstreams w:Ingressive soundWikipedia instrumental case instrumental term A case indicating the marked noun is the means by which the action is accomplished. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Instrumental caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/instrumental-case SIL intervocalic term Of a consonant, occurring between two vowels. Lenition often occurs intervocallically. linguistics wikt:intervocalic#EnglishWiktionary intransitive term 1. Of a clause, relating a single noun argument to a verb. The argument is called the subject. 2. Of a verb, mediating an intransitive clause. Cf. transitive, transitive. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment isolate isolates language isolate term 1. A natlang that isn't known to be related to any other natlang on Earth. 2. The only living member of a large family of related languages. linguistics w:language isolateWikipedia isolating isolating language term Of a language, having no inflect inflections and very low morpheme/word ratio. Must be analytic, cannot be synthetic. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar#Morphology and Syntax kitchen sink term Of a conlang, having many exotic features with no apparent reason or overall scheme. conlanging Types#Kitchen sink languages labialized labialization unrounded term Of a consonant, produced with the lips puckered, creating an additional resonance cavity between the lips and teeth and thereby altering the sound. The same effect for a vowel is called rounding. Occurs in most languages but might not be phonemic. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:LabializationWikipedia laminal term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the blade (top surface of the front, just behind the tip) of the tongue. See coronal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Laminal consonantWikipedia language term A language is a learned system for using sequences of words for general sapient communication. Description of a language is usually analyzed into morphology and grammar. Scientists struggle over just what language is, but it appears to be strictly a behavior of sapient beings; thus far no non-human animal has been shown to use a language with the complexities of human communication, and most non-human communications (such as those of birds, a much-studied case) clearly aren't even remotely comparable. It's difficult to determine whether even some human communication systems qualify, such as rongorongo. See also written language. linguistics FAQ# wikt:language#NounWiktionary https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/ Language Log laryngeal laryngeals term 1. Of a consonant, having primary articulation in the neighborhood of the larynx. Certainly includes glottals; may or may not include epiglottals. w:Laryngeal consonantWikipedia 2. One of a hypothesized series of consonants in Proto-Indo-European, based on indirect evidence of effect on vowels in daughter languages. Though called "laryngeals" by early proponents who thought their place of articulation might be glottal, epiglottal, or pharyngeal, current speculation also includes uvular and velar. See Hittite. w:Laryngeal theoryWikipedia linguistics laryngeal cavity vestibule infraglottic cavity term The interior space of the larynx. Divided by the vocal cords into the vestibule above, connecting to the pharynx, and infraglottic cavity below, connecting to the trachea (windpipe). linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Larynxwikipedia laryngealized laryngealization term 1. glottalized. 2. creaky voice. linguistics larynx term The voice box, from which speech sounds project into the vocal tract; connects from the windpipe (and thence the lungs) to the lower pharynx. See vocal cords, laryngeal. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Larynxwikipedia lateral term Of a consonant, produced with airflow along the sides of the tongue while airflow is blocked along the center of the mouth. Produces an L-like sound. The usual English sound /l/ is an alveolar lateral approximant; there are others, even lateral clicks. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Lateral consonantWikipedia lative case lative term A locative case indicating some sort of motion to the marked noun. In English, likely introduced by preposition to or into. Cf. ablative. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Lative caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/lative-case SIL lenition term A sound change in which a consonant becomes more sonorous, or disappears altogether. The term lenition originally means weakening. Lenition tends to happen to a consonant in an intervocalic position. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Sandhi rules#LenitionI:Sandi Intermediate/History/Common sound changes#LenitionI:Sound changes w:LenitionWikipedia lexeme term The identity of a word that does not change under inflection but does change under derivation. Encompasses core meaning and grammatical class, but not grammatical categories such as number, case, etc. linguistics lexeme-based morphology term An approach to morphology in which a stem is altered by a (derivational/inflectional) process to produce a word form. Contrast morpheme-based morphology morpheme-based, word-based morphology word-based. linguistics w:Morphology (linguistics)#ModelsWikipedia lingual term Of a speech sound, produced with airflow initiated by the tongue. This involves a double closure (coarticulation), one at the back of the mouth (either velar or uvular) and one farther forward; usually the sound is described by its forward articulation. Lingual ingressives are called clicks; lingual egressives don't usually occur in natlangs, an exception being Damin. Contrast pulmonic, glottalic. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ingressive and mixed airstreams linguistic universal linguistic universals term A pattern that usually holds for natlangs. Idea pioneered by Joseph Greenberg. Compare universal grammar. linguistics w:Linguistic universalWikipedia liquid liquids term Of a consonant, being either lateral approximant or rhotic. A hybrid classification; lateral approximants and rhotics feel similar, subjectively, placed at the same level on the sonority hierarchy and often having similar phonotactics in natlangs. The choice of term recalls a similar term hygrós (ancient Greek meaning moist) used by Dionysius Thrax over two thousand years ago (though he also included nasals). linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Liquid consonantWikipedia locative case locative term A case indicating the marked noun specifies a location. The term is sometimes used to designate a specific case in a language, sometimes to describe a general property of a case with a more specific name. Estonian and Finnish each have a half dozen or more locative cases. The term locative comes from a Latin word meaning place. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case w:Locative caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/locative-case SIL loglang term Logical language. A conlang based on formal logic. conlanging Types#Logical languages logogram logograms logograph logographic logography term A written symbol representing a whole word or phrase. A script made up of logograms is a logographic system. Logographic systems are generally very large and impure, with some symbols representing syllables or individual speech sound sounds. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Logographic systems manner of articulation term Of a consonant, how the air flow is disrupted. Compare place of articulation. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Manner w:Manner of articulationWikipedia mood term Of a verb, the possibility and necessity of the verb — whether it happens, might happen, can happen, is commanded to happen, etc. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#Mood morpheme morphemes term Classically, a word-part that has a meaning of its own. Cf. free morpheme free/bound morpheme bound. Words are more easily analyzed into morphemes in agglutinative than in fusional languages. Alternatively, some linguists view a morpheme as a process; see subtractive morpheme. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar w:MorphemeWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/morpheme SIL morpheme-based morphology term An approach to morphology in which morpheme morphemes are combined to produce a word form. Contrast lexeme-based morphology lexeme-based, word-based morphology word-based. linguistics w:Morphology (linguistics)#ModelsWikipedia morphology term The study of the internal structure of words. linguistics Beginner/Grammar Linguistics/Morphology w:Morphology (linguistics)Wikipedia morphome term A coherent part of the form of a word, without necessarily any meaning attached to it. Term coined for use in word-and-paradigm morphology, where parts of a word form don't have meanings. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Common_sounds#Morphomes http://archives.conlang.info/ghu/terdhua/feinphelghuen.html CONLANG-L morphosyntactic alignment alignment term The grammatical relationship between the way a transitive verb relates to its noun arguments, and the way an intransitive verb relates to its noun argument. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax Advanced/Grammar/Alignment mutation See apophony. nasal nasals nasal cavity term 1. Of a consonant, produced with air flow through the nose rather than through the mouth. Contrast with oral. Compare nasalized. See velum. Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Manner Linguistics/Phonetics#Consonants w:Nasal consonantWikipedia 2. Of a vowel, nasalized. linguistics nasalized nasalization term Of a speech sound, produced with some air flow through the nose in addition to air flow through the mouth. Both consonants and vowels can be nasalized. Not to be confused with nasal. See velum. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Other features w:NasalizationWikipedia natlang natlangs term Natural language. A human language that occurred naturally, as opposed to a conlang. conlanging FAQ#Is_there_a_language_with_.3Cfeature.3E.3F Natural Semantic Metalanguage natural semantic metalanguage semantic prime semantic molecule term A proposed framework in which the semantics of all human languages would be built up from a common set of semantic primes. The primes, language-independent irreducible meanings, would be combined into semantic molecules. The theory was proposed by linguist Anna Wierzbicka in the early 1970s. linguistics Intermediate/New Realms w:Natural semantic metalanguageWikipedia nominative term 1. Of a noun, nominative case. 2. Of a language, nominative-accusative. linguistics nominative-accusative nominativity accusativity term Of a language, following an alignment pattern that treats the agent of a transitive verb like the subject of an intransitive verb (nominative case), while distinguishing them from the patient of a transitive verb (accusative case). The most common alignment pattern amongst natural languages; contrast ergative-absolutive. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments nominative case term A case indicating the agent of a transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb in a nominative-accusative alignment pattern. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments nonconfigurational nonconfigurationality non-configurational non-configurationality configurational configurationality term Of a language, not using word order for organizing the elements of a sentence, so that word order is available for use for other purposes (such as discourse structure). This term comes from the phrase-structure tradition of linguistics. linguistics noun term A word that denotes a thing (concrete or abstract). linguistics Beginner/Grammar Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns Advanced/Grammar/Noun-Verb distinction nucleus nuclei peak term 1. The core phone sound in a syllable; the peak, most sonorous, usually a vowel. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables#Components of a syllable Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics#Syllable Structure w:Nucleus (syllable)Wikipedia 2. Synonym for head. number term Of a noun, how many of the noun there are. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Number object term A part of a sentence that specifies a thing secondarily involved in the action of the verb. One of the three main parts of a sentence. intransitive verbs take no object; the terminology becomes somewhat tangled for ditransitive verbs, which take two objects. See also prepositional object. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Case obstruent term A speech sound with an obstructed airflow; anything from fricatives on down on the sonority hierarchy. Contrast Sonorant. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#The sonority hierarchy w:Obstruentwikipedia occlusive See plosive. oligoisolating oligoanalytic term Of a language, having few morphemes with an isolating structure (very low morpheme/word ratio). No found in nature; conlang Toki Pona is oligoisolating. Prefix oligo- means few. Contrast oligosynthetic. linguistics Intermediate/New Realms w:Oligoisolating languageWikipedia oligosynthetic oligosynthesis term Of a language, having few morphemes with a high morpheme/word ratio (synthetic). Arguably not possible in nature; conlang aUI is claimed as an example. Prefix oligo- means few. Contrast oligoisolating. linguistics Intermediate/New Realms w:Oligosynthetic languageWikipedia onset term The part of a syllable before the nucleus, if any. Consonantal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables#Components of a syllable Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics#Syllable Structure w:Syllable onsetWikipedia Optimality Theory term A model of language in which the surface forms of language are generated from underlying representations by optimizing between competing constraints; OT for short. Constraints are not involable rules, rather may be overriden by higher-priority constraints. Most of the specifics are supposed to be universal grammar universal, languages differing only by relative priorities of the constraints. Controversial; notably, critics suggest OT cannot account for successively applied rules. Usually applied to phonology, but sometimes also to higher-level concerns such as syntax. Proposed in 1991. linguistics w:Optimality TheoryWikipedia https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Optimality_Theory wikia oral oral cavity term Not nasal: of a consonant, produced with air flow through the mouth; of a vowel, produced without air flow through the nose. linguistics w:Oral consonantWikipedia orthography term The correct way of using a specific writing system to write the language. linguistics Beginner/Writing Intermediate/Writing OSV term Rare language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is object-subject-verb. Most natlang natlangs put the subject before the object. OSV natlangs are mostly native to the Amazon basin. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax OVS term Rare language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is object-verb-subject. Most natlang natlangs put the subject before the object. Some native languages of the Americas are OVS. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax palatal term Of a consonant, having primary articulation by constricting airflow between the hard palate and back of the tongue (dorsum). Compare retroflex. linguistics w:Palatal consonantWikipedia palatalized palatalize palatalization term 1. Of a consonant, having its basic identity colored by narrowing of airflow between the tongue and the hard palate. A secondary articulation; as if the consonant were closely followed by a palatal approximant. w:Palatalization (phonetics)Wikipedia 2. Of a speech sound, having undergone a sound change either causing or caused by either a palatal consonant, palatalized consonant, or front vowel. Often ends in assibilation. Intermediate/History/Common sound changes#Palatalization w:Palatalization (sound change)Wikipedia linguistics paradigm inflectional paradigm term A complete pattern of all the ways a word can vary by inflection. Cf. declension, conjugation. linguistics partitive case term A case indicating the marked noun is partial in nature, atelic; covers a variety of situations. Notably Finnish, Estonian, and Quenya have such a case. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Number w:Partitive caseWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/partitive-case SIL patient term A thematic role: The participant of a situation upon whom an action is carried out. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Argument roles peak See nucleus. person term Of a noun, how it relates to the speaker and the audience. linguistics pharyngeal term 1. Of a consonant, having primary articulation in the upper pharynx, by constricting airflow in the pharynx (the throat) using the root of the tongue. 2. Of a consonant, either having primary articulation either in the pharynx or epiglottal. See radical. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Radicals w:Pharyngeal consonantWikipedia pharyngealized pharyngealize term Of a speech sound, having its basic identity colored by constriction of the pharynx or epiglottis. A secondary articulation. linguistics w:PharyngealizationWikipedia pharynx term The upper part of the throat; roughly, the part of the throat that is also part of the vocal tract. Has three parts, the nasopharynx at the back of the nasal cavity, oropharynx behind the oral cavity mouth, and laryngopharynx connecting to the larynx and esophagus. See velum, radical. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Pharynxwikipedia phonaestheme phonestheme term A pattern of form in words that naturally pairs with meaning, in violation of Ferdinand de Saussure's principle of arbitrariness of the sign. Phonaesthemes are not limited to a single language, and do not compose to fully define a word form; contrast morpheme. Spontaneous word coinages are statistically likely to involve phonaesthemes. Common examples are "gl-" for words related to light and vision, "sn-" for words related to the mouth or nose. linguistics http://enamyn.free.fr/conlang/id04.html page phonaesthetics phonesthetics phonaesthetic phonesthetic term 1. The qualitative sound of a language, including its beautiful (euphonic) and harsh (cacophonic) aspects. Term in this sense attributed to J.R.R. Tolkien; cf. cellar door. 2. The relationship between form and meaning of words; cf. phonaestheme. linguistics phone phones speech sound speech sounds term A language sound made using the vocal tract. See allophone. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones w:phone (phonetics)Wikipedia phoneme phonemes term A minimal sound element of language that can distinguish words from each other. See allophone. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#The phoneme/allophone distinction w:phonemeWikipedia phonemic term Of a feature of speech sound in a language, capable of changing the meaning of a word. For example, in English, vowel height is phonemic while rounding is not. Compare phoneme. linguistics wikt:phonemic#EnglishWiktionary phonetics phonetic term The study of the sounds of human speech. There is no concept of phoneme in phonetics. linguistics Beginner/Sounds Intermediate/Sounds Advanced/Sounds phonology phonological term The study of the sound system of a specific language. May deal with both phones and phonemes. linguistics Beginner/Sounds Intermediate/Sounds Advanced/Sounds phonotactics phonotactic term Of a language, the rules of how phonemes can be combined. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics pictogram pictograms pictograph pictographs pictographic term An ideogram that uses a picture to suggest its meaning. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Script history w:PictogramWikipedia place of articulation term Of a consonant, where along the vocal tract the air flow is disrupted. Compare manner of articulation. See coarticulation. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Place of articulationWikipedia plosive stop occlusive term Of a consonant, having manner of articulation manner of primary articulation where airflow is blocked. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Manner w:Stop consonantWikipedia polypersonal agreement polypersonal term morphology Morphological agreement of a verb with several of its arguments. In natlangs, may occur with polysynthesis, may occur with ergativity. Basque has polypersonal agreement. linguistics w:Polypersonal agreementWikipedia polysynthetic polysynthesis term Of a language, having a very large number of morpheme morphemes per word. Term coined circa 1819 by linguist Peter Stephen du Ponceau to describe American natlangs. Raises questions of what a word is. Some linguists have proposed more restrictive definitions to clearly exclude phenomena such as agglutination. Polysynthetic languages often use incorporation and polypersonal agreement. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Forming words#Polysynthesis http://conlangery.com/2013/04/22/conlangery-89-polysynthesis/ Conlangery postalveolar term Of a consonant, having primary articulation by constricting airflow between the inner side of the alveolar ridge and the tongue. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Alveolar consonantWikipedia postcedent See cataphora. postposition postpositional term A word that marks the end of a modifying phrase. Cf. adposition, preposition. linguistics w:PostpositionWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/postposition SIL pragmatics term The study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than what is explicitly stated. linguistics Beginner/Context Advanced/Language-Culture link predicate term 1. In traditional grammar, one of the two parts of a sentence, saying something about the subject. 2. In some formal treatments of grammar, a boolean-valued function asserting a property of a single element or a relation between multiple elements. Sometimes predicator to distinguish from the traditional sense of predicate. linguistics prefix infixation term An affix that attaches to the beginning of a word. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Prefixes/suffixes preposition prepositional term A word that marks the start of a modifying phrase. Cf. adposition, postposition. linguistics w:PrepositionWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/preposition SIL prepositional object term An object introduced by a preposition. linguistics primary articulation primary articulations term Of a consonant, the constriction of airflow that gives the consonant its character. If the consonant is co-articulated, distinguished from the secondary articulation, which only colors the consonant without changing its identity. See doubly articulated. linguistics progressive assimilation term Assimilation in which a later sound is influenced by an earlier one. linguistics pronoun term An anaphor whose referent is a noun. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Split alignment w:PronounWikipedia pulmonic term Of a speech sound, produced with airflow in/out of the lungs (controlled by the muscles of the diaphragm). Human speech sounds are most commonly pulmonic egressive. Contrast lingual, glottalic. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Ingressive and mixed airstreams R-colored vowel R-colored vocalic R term A vowel with the quality of a rhotic approximant. Technically, a vowel whose third formant is shifted downward in frequency. The concept may be partly or entirely dispensed with; some rhotic syllable nuclei may be interpreted as rhotic approximants, while others may be treated as diphthongs of an uncolored vowel with an R-colored neutral vowel. If R-colored vowels aren't really vowels, then rhotic approximants aren't semivowels. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Other features w:R-colored vowelWikipedia radical term Of a consonant, having primary articulation in the pharynx. May mean specifically articulation in the upper pharynx by airflow constriction using the root of the tongue (the word radical comes from Latin radix meaning root); but in some usage, radical also includes epiglottal. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Radicals w:Radical consonantWikipedia recipient term A thematic role: participant of a change of ownership that acquires ownership, as the student in "The librarian gave the book to the student." linguistics recursion term The property of a language that a sentence can contain a sentence within it as a subpart, allowing unlimited depth of nesting ("I know that they know that I know that they know that..."). Noam Chomsky has claimed recursion is universal grammar universal to human language, a claim recently challenged by Daniel Everett citing Pirahã as a counterexample. Considerable controversy has ensued. linguistics w:Recursion#In languageWikipedia reduplication term Change of a word form by repeating part of it. Prominently used in Austronesian natlangs; scattered uses elsewhere, e.g. in English. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Reduplication w:ReduplicationWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/reduplication SIL regressive assimilation term Assimilation in which an earlier sound is influenced by a later one. linguistics relative clause term A dependent clause that qualifies a noun. Contrast adverbial clause. linguistics relex term A conlang that too closely imitates a pre-existing language. Shortened, and generalized, from linguistic term relexification relexification. conlanging Types#Relexes relexification term A process of language change in which most or all of the lexicon of the language is replaced by vocabulary from another language (the lexifier). Origin of the generalized conlanging term relex. linguistics w:relexificationWikipedia retroflex term Of a consonant, having primary articulation between the coronal front of the tongue curled back to some degree or other, and a place on the roof of the mouth at or behind the alveolar ridge. With a fully curled-back tongue, the active articulator active surface is subapical; sometimes retroflex is used to include apical and laminal sounds, in which case the subapicals may be called true retroflex; but generally not other tongue positions such as domed. May be alveolar, postalveolar, or palatal. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Place w:Retroflex consonantWikipedia rhotic term Of a consonant, being qualitatively R-like. It's generally agreed which consonants are rhotic, but there has been some difficulty identifying a technical criterion to explain it; consider how little the alveolar approximant and alveolar trill have in common, as sounds. Rhotics behave similarly in human languages; their resemblance is phonological rather than phonetic. Some linguists consider approximant rhotics to be glides. See R-colored. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Rhotic consonantWikipedia rime term The combination of nucleus and, if present, coda of a syllable; all of the syllable except the onset if any. linguistics w:Syllable rimeWikipedia rounded roundedness unrounded term Of a vowel, produced with the lips puckered, creating an additional resonance cavity between the lips and teeth and thereby altering the sound. The same effect for a consonant is called labialization. Occurs in most languages but might not be phonemic. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Other features Linguistics/Phonetics#Vowels w:RoundednessWikipedia rounding term Of a vowel, either the property of being rounded, or the binary property of whether or not the vowel is rounded. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Other features Linguistics/Phonetics#Vowels w:RoundednessWikipedia runes rune runic futhark fuþark term Alphabetic glyphs of a certain style using straight lines that make them easy to inscribe on stone. Specifically, runes refer to certain alphabets used for Germanic languages: in particular, several futhark (fuþark) for Scandinavian languages, and the futhorc (fuþorc) for Old English. See also Cirth. linguistics Intermediate/Writing w:Runes#EnglishWikipedia Sapir-Whorf hypothesis term The hypothesis that a person's language affects how they think. linguistics FAQ#Sapir-Whorf w:linguistic relativityWikipedia http://conlangery.com/2013/07/29/conlangery-92-the-sapir-worf-hypothesis/ Conlangery satem language satem languages term Any Indo-European language in which the labialization labioovelars of Proto-Indo-European merged with the plain velars while the palatalization palatovelars didn't. Contrast centum language; the two types are named after the words for hundred in respectively Sanskrit and Latin, which illustrate the contrasting phonetic evolution patterns. linguistics w:Centum and satem languagesWikipedia script scripts writing system term 1. A writing system, used to represent language. This is the sense in this wikibook; we use it interchangeably with writing system. Scripts do not necessarily correspond one-to-one with languages; a language may be written using multiple scripts, and a script might be used to write multiple languages. Usually if a language is exclusively written, one would describe it as a language rather than as a script.Beginner/Writing Intermediate/Writing 2. Calligraphy, especially cursive handwriting.w:Cursive handwritingWikipedia linguistics secondary articulation term 1. Of a co-articulated consonant, a constriction of airflow that only colors the consonant, without determining its character. Whatever the manner of articulation manner of the primary articulation, secondary articulations are approximant. See doubly articulated. 2. Also sometimes used of a vowel, indicating a secondary constriction that colors the vowel without changing its identity. linguistics w:Secondary articulationWikipedia semantic molecule See Natural Semantic Metalanguage. semantic prime See Natural Semantic Metalanguage. semantics term Aspects of meaning, as expressed in language or other systems of signs. linguistics semiconsonant See glide. semiotics semiology term The theory of how signs are used to communicate meaning; encompasses both linguistic and non-linguistic sign systems. Founded by Ferdinand de Saussure, who called his work semiology. linguistics semivowel See glide. sibilant sibilants term Of a fricative or affricate, a hissing quality; secondary feature caused by airflow between tongue and sharp edge of teeth which raises the frequency. Occurs in English alveolar and postalveolar fricatives/affricates. linguistics w:SibilantWikipedia simulfix term Apophony, when viewed as an affix. linguistics w:SimulfixWikipedia soft palate See velum. sonorant sonorants term A speech sound with unobstructed airflow; anything strictly above the fricatives on the sonority hierarchy. Sonorants are usually voiced. Contrast obstruent. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#The sonority hierarchy w:Sonorantwikipedia sonority hierarchy sonority sonorous term An ordering of speech sounds according to how free the air flow is. Vowels are more sonorous than consonant consonants, sonorant sonorants than obstruent obstruents. Linguists disagree on some details of the ordering. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#The sonority hierarchy w:Sonority hierarchyWikipedia sound change sound changes term Alteration of a speech sound, either synchronic synchronically depending on contextIntermediate/Sounds/Sandhi rules, or diachronic diachronicallyIntermediate/History/Common sound changes; may be phonemic or not. linguistics SOV term Common language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is subject-object-verb. About 40% of natlang natlangs are of this type. SOV languages include Latin, Sanskrit, and Japanese. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax speech sound See phone. spirant fricative. From a Latin verb meaning breathe, blow. spirantization term A form of lenition in which a stop or affricate changes to a fricative (spirant). linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Sandhi rules#Lenition w:SpirantizationWikipedia stop See plosive. strident term 1. Of a consonant, belonging to a conventional set of loud sounds. Always includes the sibilants; sometimes only the siblants, sometimes also some lower-frequency fricatives/affricates. w:Strident consonantWikipedia 2. Of a vowel, highly pharyngealized combined with an epiglottal trill. Commonly used in discussing Khoisan languages. w:Strident vowelWikipedia 3. Of a vowel, fricative. linguistics subapical term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the underside of the tongue tip. See retroflex, sublaminal. linguistics w:Subapical consonantWikipedia subject term 1. In traditional grammar, one of the two parts of a sentence, specifying the noun that performs the action; see predicate. 2. As a thematic role, the only participant of an intransitive clause. Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Argument roles 3. nominative case. linguistics sublaminal term Of a consonant, having primary articulation using the bottom side of the front of the tongue; suggests a part of the tongue further back than subapical. linguistics w:Subapical consonantWikipedia subordinate clause term 1. A dependent clause; that is, a clause qualifying any other element in the sentence. 2. An adverbial clause; that is, a clause that doesn't qualify a noun. linguistics subtractive morpheme See disfix. suffix suffixation term An affix that attaches to the end of a word. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#Prefixes/suffixes suppletion term The occurrence, in different inflections of a single word, of multiple, etymologically separate forms. English examples are went as a form of go, or good better best. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar/Adjectives and adverbs#ComparisonI:Comparison Intermediate/Irregularities#SuppletionI:Irregularities w:SuppletionWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/suppletion SIL SVO term Common language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is subject-verb-object. About 40% of natlang natlangs are of this type. VOS languages include English, French, Mandarin, and Russian. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax syllabary term A script whose symbols represent syllables. Compare abugida. linguistics Intermediate/Writing#Syllabaries syllabic consonant term A consonant serving as the nucleus of a syllable. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables w:Syllabic consonantWikipedia syllable syllables term Basic unit of sound, of which words are made; a cluster of speech sounds with a sonorous peak. Use of written symbols to represent syllables is older than use of written symbols to represent individual phonemes. Some linguists view some languages as not having syllables. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Syllables Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics#Syllable Structure w:SyllableWikipedia syllabic synharmony term A form of vowel-consonant harmony in which all sounds in a syllable take on the same front frontness. Noted of the Proto-Slavic language. linguistics w:Vowel harmony#Syllabic synharmonyWikipedia syllabogram syllabograms term A written symbol representing a syllable. See abugida). linguistics synchronic term 1. Of changes in a language, taking place due to some factor other than time (such as adjacency in an utterance). linguistics 2. Of linguistic study, concerned only with language as it exists at a given time, disregarding changes over time. linguistics w:Synchrony and diachronyWikipedia 3. Of a conlang, not having an internal fictional history. conlanging Types#Diachronic languages Contrast diachronic. syntax term The study of how words are arranged into sentences. linguistics synthetic synthetic language term Of a language, having high morpheme/word ratio. Cf. analytic. linguistics Intermediate/Grammar#Morphology and Syntax tap term A consonant whose manner of articulation manner of primary articulation momentarily blocks airflow by throwing the active articulator against the passive articulator. Differs from a stop because the block is instantaneous so there's no pressure build-up; differs from a single-contact trill because the articular is moved by muscular contraction, rather than by vibration due to the airflow. Commonly synonymous with flap; if not, the difference may be that the articulators in a tap strike directly whereas in a flap they strike tangentially. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#More terms w:Flap consonantWikipedia telicity telic atelic term Of an activity, the property of achieving some sort of completion. In English this may be captured by the distinction between doing something in an hour (telic) versus doing something for an hour (atelic). May interact in various ways with tense and aspect in various ways in different languages. See partitive case. linguistics w:TelicityWikipedia http://conlangery.com/2019/03/04/conlangery-137-telicity-and-lexical-aspect/ Conlangery tense term Of a verb, when the action happens — past, present, future, etc. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Morphology Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#Tense thematic relation thematic role term Of a noun, its semantic function in the sentence. A categorization of nouns typically similar to grammatical case but finer-grained. Also called thematic role, especially when used with a more grammatical emphasis. linguistics w:Thematic relationWikipedia theme term A thematic role: participant of a situation that does not change state, as the book in "The librarian gave the book to the student." linguistics theta role term thematic role, in the phrase structure approach to syntax. linguistics transformational grammar phrase-structure phrase structure term In linguistics, an approach to grammar as a formal process of generating sequences of words based on phrase structure rules. Associated with Noam Chomsky. The form of the rules is generally presumed universal grammar universal. The transformational grammar approach may present conlanging hazards (see related caveat on theory and practice). linguistics transitive term 1. Of a clause, relating two noun arguments to a verb. The arguments are called the agent and patient. 2. Of a verb, mediating a transitive clause. Cf. intransitive, ditransitive. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment trigger system trigger language term An alignment system in which any theta role in a sentence can be the focus/trigger of the sentence, marked only as the trigger rather than for case while the verb is marked to indicate the trigger's role. Conlang device inspired by Austronesian alignment; however, incompatible with more recent theory on how Austronesian alignment works. conlanging Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Trigger languages https://ayeri.de/archives/6691 discussion trill term A consonant whose manner of articulation manner of primary articulation is airflow causing vibration of the active articulator so that the articulators make intermittent contact, typically two or three times though more contacts, or just one, are possible. See also tap. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds w:Trill consonantWikipedia tripartite term Of a language, following an alignment pattern that distinguishes the agent of a transitive verb (ergative case), patient of a transitive verb (accusative case), and subject of an intransitive verb (absolutive case). Less common than either nominative-accusative or ergative-absolutive. linguistics Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments universal grammar term Academically-controversial hypothesis that although a given language's grammar is learned, the template that allows this learning (the UG) arises inevitably from unidentified, presumed genetic structures in the human brain. Associated with Noam Chomsky and other Chomskyists and rarely has practical implications for language creation. linguistics Advanced/Grammar#The universal grammar controversy unvoiced See voiced. uvula term A fleshy projection hanging down from the middle of the back edge of the roof of the mouth. It closes off the nose when swallowing (as the epiglottis closes off the larynx). Quite visible if you can get a good look, in a mirror, down your throat past your tongue. See velum. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Uvulawikipedia uvular term Of a consonant, having primary articulation at the uvula, by constricting airflow between the uvula and back of the tongue. linguistics w:Uvular consonantWikipedia velar velars term Of a consonant, having primary articulation at the velum, by constricting airflow between the velum and back of the tongue. linguistics Appendix/CXS#Consonant soundsCXS w:Velar consonantWikipedia velarized velarize term Of a consonant, having its basic identity colored by narrowing of airflow between the tongue and the soft palate. A secondary articulation. linguistics w:VelarizationWikipedia velum term The back of the roof of the mouth. Also called the soft palate; soft tissue, whereas the front of the roof of the mouth is lined with bone, the hard palate. The uvula hangs down from the velum. The velum, together with the uvula, can partly or entirely block airflow to the nasal cavity nose and oral cavity mouth. See pharynx. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Soft palatewikipedia verb term 1. A word that denotes action performed by or on a thing (sometimes, the trivial action of being). 2. The part of a sentence that specifies the central action of the sentence. One of the three main parts of a sentence. linguistics vestibule See laryngeal cavity. vocal cords vocal folds term Two folds of tissue stretching across the laryngeal cavity, capable of vibrating to produce voicing. Also called vocal folds. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Voice w:Vocal cordswikipedia vocal tract term The anatomical cavity through which sounds pass after being generated. For human beings, this consists of the nasal and oral cavities, pharynx, and laryngeal cavity. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Alien Sounds#Vocal tract w:Vocal tractWikipedia vocalic R See R-colored vowel. vocality term Of a speech sound, either the property of being voiced, or the binary property of whether or not the sound is voiced. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Voice w:Voice (phonetics)Wikipedia voice voices term 1. Of a verb, which participant in the action is the subject — whether the subject does the action, has the action done to it, or does it to itself. Advanced/Grammar/Voice w:Voice (grammar)Wikipedia 2. Of a speech sound, voicing. linguistics voiced unvoiced voicing term Of a speech sound, produced with the vocal cords vibrating. linguistics Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Voice w:Voice (phonetics)Wikipedia VOS term Rare language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is verb-object-subject. Most natlang natlangs put the subject before the object. Some Austronesian and Mayan languages are VOS. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax vowel vowels term 1. A speech sound with unconstricted air flow through the vocal tract. Distinguished by height, backness, and subtler features such as rounding. Contrast with consonant consonants, which have lower sonority. Beginner/Sounds Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#Vowels 2. A glyph written to represent a vowel sound. linguistics vowel-consonant harmony term Assimilation between non-adjacent sounds involving both vowels and consonants. Much less common than vowel harmony. Noted in some native languages in British Columbia, Canada; see also syllabic synharmony. linguistics w:Vowel harmony#Vowel-consonant harmonyWikipedia vowel harmony term Assimilation between non-adjacent vowels. Common in agglutinative languages. The most common form of harmony. linguistics Advanced/Sounds/Common_sounds#Vowel Harmony w:Vowel harmonyWikipedia https://glossary.sil.org/term/vowel-harmony SIL VSO term Language type in which the neutral ordering of the three main sentence elements is verb-subject-object. About 15% of natlang natlangs are of this type. VSO languages include Welsh and classical Arabic. linguistics Beginner/Grammar#Syntax word words term A standalone unit of language. May be used in either a concrete or abstract sense; generally clear from context, but, for precision, prefer word form or lexeme. linguistics Beginner/Words https://glossary.sil.org/term/word SIL word-and-paradigm morphology See word-based morphology. word-based morphology word-and-paradigm morphology term An approach to morphology in which a word follows a paradigm to produce word form word forms. Also called word-and-paradigm morphology; sometimes abbreviated WP. Contrast morpheme-based morphology morpheme-based, lexeme-based morphology lexeme-based. linguistics w:Morphology (linguistics)#ModelsWikipedia word form term An inflect inflected form of a lexeme. linguistics WP See word-based morphology word-and-paradigm morphology. writing system See script. written language term Language in written form; however, this could mean either a written encoding of spoken language, or a language whose form is written. When there is an associated spoken language, the written form may use a different diglossia register, and may also contain some purely written elements, e.g. emoticons. Some conlangs are purely written with no spoken form, such as X. linguistics FAQ# People and things List conlang-related people, organizations, discussion fora, and books (or other works) here. Languages belong in a separate section, below. Most people of interest are likely to be conlangers of note; presumably if a conlang is suitable to list below, so is its creator here. Books about conlanging are especially likely to be relevant; we probably don't want to try to list every work that uses a conlang, as the list could get unmanageably long. If you think you or your work/forum/whatever should be listed, it's probably best to ask on the talk page for someone else to make that call and, if yes, write the entry. A Gateway to Sindarin A Gateway to Sindarin work A 2004 book on Sindarin by David Salo. Purists wishing to distinguish Salo's extrapolations from Tolkien's notes may refer to the language described in Salo's book as Neo-Sindarin. conlanging http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/A_Gateway_to_Sindarin Tolkien Gateway A Secret Vice A Secret Vice work An essay by J.R.R. Tolkien, first delivered as a talk around 1931 and later revised and redelivered, presenting what is now called artlang artlanging. A major milestone in the history of conlanging. Tolkien "outs" himself as an artlanger, distinguishes between auxlang auxlangs and artlangs, discusses the relation of mythology to language, and discusses phonaesthetics. conlanging w:A Secret ViceWikipedia Arika Okrent person Author of a book about conlangs, In the Land of Invented Languages, 2009. PhD in psycholinguistics (psychology of linguistics) at the University of Chicago in 2004. While researching the book, attended a Language Creation Conference. psycholinguistics w:Arika OkrentWikipedia AUXLANG-L forum A mailing list created in 1997, split off from CONLANG-L. conlanging https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/auxlang.html AUXLANG-L Babel Text Babel Texts work A common exercise in conlang application, translation of the story of the Tower of Babel, Genesis 11:1–9. Proposed as a standard exercise by Jeffrey Henning, who hosted some four or five hundred such translations on the langmaker website. conlanging Beginner/Learning your conlang#Record yourself! Appendix/Translation texts#Babel Text s:Bible (King James)/Genesis#Chapter 11Wikisource https://web.archive.org/web/20080514154740/http://www.langmaker.com/db/Langmaker:Babel_Texts langmaker (archived) Broca's area idea A part of the human brain related to producing speech. Located toward the front of the dominant hemisphere (which is usually the left hemisphere since most people are right-handed). See Wernicke's area. neurology FAQ#What's_a_"Language"? w:Broca's areaWikipedia cellar door phrase This phrase has been cited as an exemplar of a euphonious (beautiful-sounding) English phrase. J.R.R. Tolkien, describing his attitude toward Welsh in 1955, wrote, "in Welsh for me cellar doors are extraordinarily frequent". linguistics w:cellar doorWikipedia Claudio Gnoli person Conlanger who created conlang Liva, and subsequently proposed what is now called the Gnoli triangle. https://www-dimat.unipv.it/gnoli/ page Conlang flag Conlang Flag flag thumb|right|The Conlang flagA symbol of the online conlanging community, designed by an organic democratic process on CONLANG-L mailing list. Depicts a sunrise, symbolizing conlanging coming out into the open; behind the Tower of Babel, referring to the Babel Text and symbolizing the many-layered development of a conlang. conlanging https://outerhoard.wordpress.com/2006/11/20/conlanging-and-phonetics/#more-141 The Outer Hoard CONLANG-L forum A mailing list created in 1991, that drew together language creators into a community. The term conlang is derived from the name of the mailing list. In early 1997, auxlang advocacy was banished to a separate list AUXLANG-L as CONLANG-L moved to a server at Brown University. conlanging FAQ#Is there a conlanging community? https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html CONLANG-L Daniel Everett person Linguist who has studied the Pirahã since the late 1970s. Early in his career he followed Noam Chomsky's methodologies, but has since come to the position that Pirahã is a counterexample to some of Chomsky's theories of universal grammar, especially universality of recursion, resulting in heated controversy; Chomsky has called Everett a "charlatão puro" (pure charlatan). linguistics w:Daniel EverettWikipedia David Bell person Conlanger who created artlang ámman îar, spending over four decades on it. 1942–2007. http://graywizard.conlang.org/personal.htm page David J. Peterson David Peterson person Co-founder of the Language Creation Society, and its president for several years. Has created a number of conlangs for television and movies, including Dothraki for Game of Thrones. conlanging w:David J. PetersonWikipedia http://dedalvs.conlang.org page David Salo person Linguist. Author of A Gateway to Sindarin, 2004; provided translations for the Lord of the Rings movies, 2001–2003. At the time of the LOTR movies, was in graduate school. conlanging w:David SaloWikipedia Dionysius Thrax person Grammarian, circa 170–90 BCE, attributed creator of the oldest surviving language grammar, highly influential on grammars since. w:Dionysius ThraxWikipedia Edward Powell Foster person Creator of auxlang Ro. Reverend, from Ohio, 1853–1937. conlanging https://web.archive.org/web/20120423022410/http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ro.htm archive Ferdinand de Saussure person Linguist and semiotics semiotician, considered amongst the founders of the twentieth-century forms of both subjects. 1857–1913. linguistics w:Ferdinand de SaussureWikipedia Geoff Eddy person Creator of altlang Breathanach. Suggested bogolang for an altlang in which the historical sound changes of one natlang are applied to another natlang (as with Breathanach, arguably Brithenig, etc.). conlanging https://web.archive.org/web/20090527000557/http://www.cix.co.uk:80/~morven/index.html archive George Orwell person Pen name of journalist and author Eric A. Blair, who described fictional language Newspeak. journalism w:George OrwellWikipedia Giuseppe Peano person Italian mathematician and linguist, creator of Latino sine flexione, 1858–1932. linguistics w:Giuseppe PeanoWikipedia Gnoli triangle idea A triangle showing the mixture of practical, technical, and artistic motivations for a conlang. The pure motivations are at the corners: auxlang, engelang, and artlang. Proposed by conlanger Claudio Gnoli in the late 1990s. conlanging Types#In-between goals http://www.carolandray.plus.com/Glosso/Glossopoeia.html#gnoli-triang page Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz person German polymath, one of the inventors of differential calculus. 1646–1716. Attempted to create Characteristica universalis. 1614–1672. conlanging w:Gottfried Wilhelm LeibnizWikipedia Hildegard of Bingen Saint Hildegard person Twelfth century German Benedictine abbess, who created Lingua Ignota. Noted for contributions to natural science; long considered a saint in various branches of Roman Catholicism; named a Doctor of the Church in 2012 by Pope Benedict XVI. Since a 2010 proposal by the Conlanging Librarian at the Language Creation Society, her feast day of September 17 has gained some traction in the internet conlanging community as a conlanging holiday, when conlangers wish each other a happy Saint Hildegard's day. conlanging w:Hildegard of BingenWikipedia https://library.conlang.org/blog/?p=381 Conlanging Librarian Ill Bethisad work An alternate history project started in 1997 around Brithenig. At last check, more than 75 contributors, more than 30 conlangs including Brithenig and Wenedyk. conlanging w:Ill BethisadWikipedia http://www.bethisad.com/ page In the Land of Invented Languages: Esperanto Rock Stars, Klingon Poets, Loglan Lovers, and the Mad Dreamers Who Tried to Build A Perfect Language In the Land of Invented Languages work A 2009 book about conlangs by psycholinguist Arika Okrent. conlanging http://inthelandofinventedlanguages.com/ page James Cooke Brown person Creator of Loglan. 1921–2000. Sociologist, science fiction author. conlanging w:James Cooke BrownWikipedia Jan van Steenbergen person Dutch linguist and conlanger. Coauthor of auxlang Interslavic and author of altlang Wenedyk. conlanging w:Jan van SteenbergenWikipedia http://steen.free.fr/ page Jeffrey Henning person Conlanger who authored the Model Languages newsletter in 1995–6 and later hosted the langmaker website until circa 2009. See Babel Text. conlanging Johann Martin Schleyer Martin Schleyer person Creator of auxlang Volapük. German Catholic priest, 1831–1912. Claimed the idea for Volapük came to him after a parishioner couldn't send mail to their son in America because US postal workers couldn't read their handwriting. conlanging w:Johann Martin SchleyerWikipedia John Quijada person Creator of logical philosophical language Ithkuil. California-based, bachelor's degree in linguistics. Sometime speaker at LCC Language Creation Conferences. conlanging http://www.ithkuil.net/faqs.html Ithkuil FAQ John Wilkins person Creator in the seventeenth century of an influential Wilkins's philosophical language philosophical language. 1614–1672. Anglican Clergyman. conlanging w:John WilkinsWikipedia Joseph Greenberg person US linguist who investigated linguistic universals. 1915–2001. linguistics w:Joseph GreenbergWikipedia J.R.R. Tolkien J. R. R. Tolkien John Ronald Reuel Tolkien person Creator of Quenya and Sindarin. 1892–1973. Philologist, professor, and lifelong artlang artlanger. A major influence on conlanging as a whole; see The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, A Secret Vice. conlanging w:J. R. R. TolkienWikipedia langmaker work A major conlanging website maintained until about 2009 by Jeffrey Henning. Resources hosted included (amongst others) descriptions of roughly two thousand conlangs; four or five hundred Babel Texts; and the Model Languages newsletter archive. conlanging w:LangmakerWikipedia https://web.archive.org/web/20080618214613/http://www.langmaker.com/db/Main_Page archive.org Language Construction Kit work A widely recognized introduction to conlanging by conlanger Mark Rosenfelder, first on his website and more recently also in dead-tree form. conlanging w:Zompist.com#The Language Construction KitWikipedia http://www.zompist.com/kit.html page Language Creation Conference LCC conference A university-hosted conference on conlanging. Recently, a two-day conference held in odd-numbered years at a university, except the first one-day in 2006. So far, hosted by universities in North America and Europe. conlanging https://conlang.org/language-creation-conference/ page Language Creation Society LCS organization A non-profit corporation dedicated to promoting conlanging, founded in 2007. Runs the Language Creation Conference. conlanging FAQ#Is there a conlanging community? https://conlang.org page Logical Language Group organization A non-profit organization formed in 1987 to develop Lojban. conlanging https://mw.lojban.org/papri/Logical_Language_Group page L.L. Zamenhof L. L. Zamenhof Zamenhof person Creator of Esperanto. 1859–1917. Medical doctor, born of Polish-Lithuanian Jewish parents in an area of partitioned Poland with many ethnic groups at odds with each other; believed a common language could promote peace. His idealism earned him the Esperanto nickname Doktoro Esperanto, meaning Doctor Hopeful, from which the language got its name. conlanging w:L. L. ZamenhofWikipedia Marc Okrand person Creator of the Klingon language in the 1980s for the Star Trek franchise, and later the Atlantean language for 2001 Disney movie Atlantis: The Lost Empire. US linguist; has studied native American languages. conlanging w:Marc OkrandWikipedia Mark Rosenfelder zompist zompist.com person Prominent conlanger, a.k.a. Zompist. Maintains the zompist.com website, including the Zompist Bulletin Board and Language Construction Kit; creator of conlang Verdurian. Author of several books, including the dead-tree edition of the Language Cconstruction Kit. conlanging http://www.zompist.com/ zompist.com Model Languages newsletter work A series of articles about conlanging written in 1995–6 by Jeffrey Henning. A prominent on-line conlanging resource, hosted on the langmaker website until its demise. conlanging https://web.archive.org/web/20120508115105/http://www.langmaker.com/backissu.htm archive.org Noam Chomsky person US linguist centrally associated with the universal grammar hypothesis and transformational grammar. linguistics Advanced/Grammar#The universal grammar controversy w:Noam ChomskyWikipedia Omniglot work An online encyclopedia of writing systems and languages, set up by Simon Ager. Started in 1998 and evolved into an encyclopedia due to Ager's interests. Emphasis on writing systems. Includes some conlangs, numerous constructed scripts. linguistics w:OmniglotWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/ page Otto Jespersen person Creator of auxlang Novial. Danish linguist, 1869–1943. Significant contributions to theory of structural linguistics. linguistics w:Otto JespersenWikipedia Paul Frommer person Creator of the Na'vi language for 2009 film Avatar. US communications professor with a PhD in linguistics. conlanging w:Paul FrommerWikipedia Rex May person Creator of conlang Tceqli. US cartoonist. conlanging w:eo:Rex F. MayVikipedio http://www.baloocartoons.com/ page Rick Harrison Richard Harrison person US-based conlanger active in the internet conlanging community mainly during the 1990s. Creator of conlangs Vorlin and Esperanto sen fleksio. conlanging w:eo:Richard HarrisonVikipedio https://web.archive.org/web/20120716230154/http://www.rickharrison.com/language/index.html archive Rosetta Stone object A stone monument discovered in the Nile Delta in 1799, repeating a decree in three different scripts, which famously provided the key to deciphering Egpytian hieroglyphics. The decree was issued in 196 BCE. Weight a little over half a ton, inscribed surface around a square yard (or, square metre). Ancient Greek, Egyptian demotic demotic, and hieroglyphic; actually deciphering the latter took about another 20 years. conlanging Intermediate/Writing w:Rosetta StoneWikipedia Sally Caves Sarah Higley person Pen name of Sarah Higley; conlanger, science fiction writer, and professor of English at the University of Rochester in upstate New York. Creator of artlang Teonaht. In science fiction, noted for creating character Reginald Barclay of the Star Trek franchise. Author of 2007 book Hildegard of Bingen's Unknown Language, about Saint Hildegard Hildegard's conlang Lingua Ignota. conlanging w:Sally CavesWikipedia http://www.concavities.org/teonaht/ page SCA Sound Change Applier software Well-known computer program for automatically applying sound changes to words, written by Mark Rosenfelder. The original program was written in the C programming language in 2000 CE. He wrote up upgraded version in javascript, running on a web brower and supporting unicode, in 2012. linguistics Intermediate/History/Common sound changes#Sound change appliers https://zompist.com/sounds.htm SCA Secret Vice See A Secret Vice. SIL International organization A non-profit corporation that promotes study and documentation of languages around the world, especially endangered ones; literacy; and translation of the Christian Bible into those languages. Extensive linguistic research and resources are provided by SIL. The United Nations formally recognizes SIL in a consulting role. linguistics w:SIL InternationalWikipedia https://www.sil.org/ site Smiley Award award An annual award by David J. Peterson to a noteworthy conlang, given since 2006. conlanging FAQ#Are there awards for conlanging? http://dedalvs.conlang.org/smileys/ page Sonja Lang Sonja Elen Kisa person Creator of philosophical language Toki Pona. Toronto-based linguist. Formerly Sonja Elen Kisa. Speculative Grammarian Speculative Grammarian work A parody science journal on linguistics. Scholarly tone; archives suggest it's existed in one form or another since the late 1980s. linguistics w:Speculative GrammarianWikipedia http://specgram.com page The Art of Language Invention work A 2015 book on conlanging by David J. Peterson. About the creative process; doesn't contain exercises. He also posted a same-named series of videos on YouTube, starting at about the same time. conlanging FAQ#Is there professional conlanging? https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCgJSf-fmdfUsSlcr7A92-aA The Hobbit work A fantasy novel for children by J.R.R. Tolkien, published in 1937; now considered classic children's literature. Contains an undercurrent of linguistic appreciation and insight, and some quotable quotes sometimes used in a linguistic or conlinguistic context. The Lord of the Rings Lord of the Rings work An epic fantasy novel by J.R.R. Tolkien, first published in 1954–1955; one of the best-selling novels of all time (as of this writing, only surpassed by Don Quixote and A Tale of Two Cities). Provides a significant slice of Tolkien's legendarium and conlangs of Middle Earth, which he'd been developing since World War I. In the successful movie adaptation from 2001–2003, translations into Tolkien's languages were handled by conlanger David Salo. Victoria Fromkin person Creator of the Pakuni language in the 1970s for TV show Land of the Lost franchise, and later created a Vampire language for the 1998 movie Blade (but for the sequel Blade II, after her death, her notes on the language could not be found and another linguist was hired). 1923–2000. UCLA professor of linguistics. conlanging FAQ#Is there professional conlanging? w:Victoria FromkinWikipedia W. John Weilgart person Creator of philosophical language aUI. 1913–1981. Born in Vienna. In childhood, had vision of beings from space and was told by a psychiatrist to describe visions to other people as dreams or poems; studied linguistics, earned a doctorate in psychology, and created aUI, "the language of space". His 1968 book on aUI starts with a poem about a visitor from space. conlanging https://auilanguage.org/dr-weilgart/ Dr. Weilgart’s Story Wernicke's area idea A part of the human brain related to understanding language. Located (usually?) toward the back of the dominant hemisphere (which is usually the left hemisphere since most people are right-handed). See Broca's area. neurology FAQ#What's_a_"Language"? w:Wernicke's areaWikipedia Yoda forum Character in the Star Wars movie franchise, noted linguistically (though Star Wars has been notoriously thin on linguistic interest) for peculiar word ordering in English that seems to suggest his native language may be OSV. conlanging Beginner/Grammar#Syntax w:YodaWikipedia Zompist Bulletin Board ZBB forum A popular on-line conlanging discussion form maintained by Mark Rosenfelder. conlanging w:Zompist.com#The Zompist Bulletin BoardWikipedia http://www.incatena.org/ page Languages and scripts Most of these are conlangs. Only list natlangs when of particular interest to conlangers (or we'd drown in a sea of them!). Constructed scripts will usually, though not always, be subsumed by their associated languages; see also the remarks on written language in the FAQ, at What's a "Language"?. List conlangs only when they have gotten some attention in the conlanging community; don't list your own conlangs here (unless they've gained some fame/notoriety in the community). Any conlang that has a Smiley Award or an ISO language code presumably qualifies. Likewise any script with an ISO script code. As a rule, provide ISO codes for constructed languages/scripts, omit for natural ones. This list is an opportunity to explain how each language fits into the big-picture perspective of conlanging; this high-level view is often difficult to deduce by studying detailed resources about each language (to which this list will usually provide an outgoing link). ámman îar language An artlang created over many years by conlanger David Bell. An ergative-absolutive language, likely started the trend of ergative conlangs. Set in a corner of J.R.R. Tolkien's fictional world. Winner of the 2010 Smiley Award. artlang Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Distinctions Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignments http://dedalvs.conlang.org/smileys/2010.html Smiley], [http://graywizard.conlang.org/amman_iar.htm page Anatolian hieroglyphic Anatolian hieroglyphics Anatolian hieroglyphs script A script used in Asia Minor (Anatolia) on Crete from roughly 1300–700 BCE. Historically sometimes called Hittite or Luwian hieroglyphs. Deciphered. Displaced by alphabetic script. script w:Anatolian hieroglyphsWikipedia aUI language A philosophical language first published in the 1960s by philologist and psychoanalyst W. John Weilgart, in which words are built up as sequences of a small set of semantic primes — 31 single-phoneme morphemes. Billed as "the language of space", the idea being that human corruption is encoded in the vast vocabularies of human languages. ("aUI" = space mind/spirit sound; space language.) engelang Types#Philosophical languages w:aUI (constructed language)Wikipedia Ayeri language A conlang created by conlanger Carsten Becker starting in 2003, exploring the concept of trigger language. Its creator has since written extensively on how Ayeri differs from Austronesian alignment. artlang Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Trigger languages https://ayeri.de/ page Basque euskara language A natlang commonly studied by conlangers as a particularly pure example of ergativity. Language isolate spoken in the Basque Country of Spain and France. Agglutinative; most verbs only occur in non-finite form with auxiliary verbs showing polypersonal agreement. natlang Intermediate/Sounds/Phones#AllophonesI:allophones Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#Polypersonal markingI:polypersonal Advanced/Grammar/Alignment#Simple role-marking alignmentsA:alignments Basque w:Basque languageWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/basque.htm Omniglot] [http://conlangery.com/2013/08/12/conlangery-93-basqueeuskara-natlang/ Conlangery Breathanach language An altlang created by conlanger Geoff Eddy in 1998. Supposes Latin supplanted the native Celtic language of Ireland; thus Q-Celtic to Brithenig's P-Celtic. Part of Ill Bethisad. altlang Types#Altlangs w:br:BreathanachBreton Wikipedia http://ib.frath.net/w/Breathanach Ill Bethisad wiki Brithenig language An altlang created by conlanger Andrew Smith in 1996. Considered the classic example of its type, supposes that Latin displaced the native Celtic language of Great Britain, and applies to it the same language transformations that turned Old English into Modern English. Winner of the 2013 Smiley Award. ISO language code bzt. See also Ill Bethisad. altlang Types#Altlangs w:BrithenigWikipedia http://dedalvs.conlang.org/smileys/2013.html Smiley], [http://steen.free.fr/brithenig/introduction.html page Burmese script script An abugida developed in southeast Asia circa 1000 CE, still in use for Burmese and several other languages in and near Burma (Myanmar). About forty glyphs, including diacritics. Cursive form began to shun straight lines from around 1600 CE due to use of a writing surface likey to be punctured by a stylus when writing straight lines (palm leaves). script Intermediate/Writing w:Burmese scriptWikipedia http://www.omniglot.com/writing/burmese.htm Omniglot Characteristica universalis language A logical language proposed, but never constructed, by Gottfried Leibniz, as a formal basis for an imagined calculus of logic. Inspired by Wilkins's philosophical language. engelang w:Characteristica universalisWikipedia Cirth script A writing system created by J.R.R. Tolkien. Within Tolkien's fictional universe, a system of symbols invented by the Sindar (aka gray elves) for their language, Sindarin. Alphabetic. Suitable for carving in hard serives where curves are difficult; Tolkien drew inspiration from runic natural scripts. ISO script code Cirt. script w:CirthWikipedia Cretan hieroglyphic Cretan hieroglyphics Cretan hieroglyphs script A script used on Crete from roughly 2100–1700 BCE. Not generally agreed to have been deciphered. About 700 glyphs. No ISO script code (at this writing). script w:Cretan hieroglyphsWikipedia cuneiform script A script developed in the Sumerian civilization circa 3000 BCE, which evolved and continued in use for about three millennia. One of the oldest scripts. Number of glyphs varied over time from roughly 1000 to 600. Specifically developed for use on clay tablets using a blunt wedge; the word cuneiform means wedge-shaped. script w:CuneiformWikipedia CycL language A logical language constructed for knowledge representation in a long-term research project attempting to produce AI through accumulation of knowledge. engelang Types#Logical languages w:CycLWikipedia Damin language A ceremonial language, no longer extant, believed to have been constructed, of some natives of the Gulf of Carpentaria (the big rectangular notch on the north side of the coast of Australia). Notable for some very unusual linguistic features; clicks, otherwise not found outside Africa; only two pronouns, first-person and not-first-person; very small vocabulary of root words; regular adjective-reversing prefix. engelang w:DaminWikipedia https://web.archive.org/web/20120716230125/http://www.rickharrison.com/language/damin.html page Dothraki language An artlang created for the 2011 HBO television series Game of Thrones by David J. Peterson. See also Valyrian. artlang FAQ#Is there professional conlanging? w:Dothraki languageWikipedia Egyptian demotic script A cursive script used in Egypt from roughly 650 BCE to 450 CE. Derived from hieratic. The term demotic can also refer to the modern Greek language, and to a logographic Vietnamese script. script w:HieraticWikipedia Egyptian hieroglyphic Egyptian hieroglyphics Egyptian hieroglyphs script A script used in Egypt (Anatolia) on Crete from roughly 3200 BCE to 400 CE. One of the oldest scripts; ancestor of most alpahbets now in use. Started with fewer than a thousand glyphs, eventually grew to about five thousand; logograms, syllabograms, and alphabetic letters. Modern decipherment due to the Rosetta Stone. script w:Egyptian hieroglyphsWikipedia Elder Futhark Elder Fuþark script The oldest runic script, used for Germanic languages at least from the second century CE. Twenty four runes. script w:Elder FutharkWikipedia elvish elvish languages language A significant genre of fictional conlangs are languages for elves. J.R.R. Tolkien's most extensive diachronic family of languages were elvish, especially Quenya and Sindarin. The adjectival form elvish, rather than elfin, was an phonaesthetic aesthetic preference of Tolkien's. artlanging w:Elvish languagesWikipedia Esperanto language An auxlang first created in the late 1800s by L. L. Zamenhof; first published in 1887. The most widely spoken conlang; spoken by possibly as many as two million people, spoken natively by about 1000–2000 people. Intended to promote peace through communication. Indo-European; Slavic phonemes, largely Slavic semantics, Roman alphabet, primarily Romance vocabulary. ISO language code eo, epo. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages Esperanto https://www.omniglot.com/writing/esperanto.htm Omniglot Esperanto sen fleksio language An auxlang created by Rick Harrison. The name means Esperanto without inflection, though more precisely it has fewer inflections. Inspired by Latino sine flexione. Harrison called it a dialect of Esperanto, to emphasize it wasn't meant to be a reform of Esperanto such as Ido. auxlang w:eo:Esperanto sen fleksioVikipedio Finnish language A natlang of northern Europe. Related to Estonian, unrelated to the Scandinavian language family. Heavily influenced J.R.R. Tolkien Tolkien's artlang Quenya. Agglutinative; vowel harmony; a fairly large repertory of case cases, notably including a partitive case and an elaborate system of locative locative cases. natlang Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#CaseI:Case Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#MoodI:Mood Advanced/Sounds/Common sounds#Vowel harmonyA:Vowel harmony w:Finnish languageWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/finnish.htm Omniglot futhorc fuþorc script A runic script used for Old English and Old Frisian from roughly the fourth century CE. Evolved from the Elder Futhark, also influenced by ogham. Around forty letters; named fuþorc after the sounds of the first six. script Old English/Runes w:Anglo-Saxon runesWikipedia Glosa language An auxlang developed by Ronald Clark and Wendy Ashby, circa 1972–1992, building on Interglossa. Purely isolating. Claims to be modeled on Italian with similarities to German. Has been criticized, though, as a relex of English. auxlang Types#Relexes w:GlosaWikipedia http://archives.conlang.info/si/qanvhu/tolchaurjhaen.html criticism], [http://glosa.org/en/index.html page hieratic script A cursive script used in Egypt from roughly 3200 BCE to 650 BCE after which it was supplanted by Egyptian demotic demotic. Primarily ink on papyrus. script w:HieraticWikipedia Hittite language A natlang spoken in Mesopotamia between three and four thousand years ago. The earliest attested Indo-European language. Deciphered around World War I, providing evidence for the previously abstract hypothesis of laryngeals in Proto-Indo-European (PIE); though some linguists have suggested the ancestor of Hittite may be a sister rather than daughter of PIE. natlang w:Hittite languageWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/hittite.htm Omniglot Ido language An auxlang created in 1907 as an attempted reform of Esperanto, taking a minority of the Esperanto community with it, in an event known as the schism, or even the Great Schism, from which there are still resentments more than a century later. Ido vocabulary is more Romance. The Ido community further split over additional reforms. Ido is estimated to have about 100–200 speakers. ISO language code io, ido. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages Ido w:Ido languageWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/ido.htm Omniglot Ilomi language An auxiliary language by conlanger Larry Sulky. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages http://jimhenry.conlang.org/conlang/reviews.html#section4_8796 review], [http://www.oocities.org/handydad/elomi/elomi-lex.html page Interglossa language An auxlang developed by Lancelot Hogben, first published in 1943. Purely isolating. ISO language code igs. See Glosa. auxlang w:InterglossaWikipedia Interslavic language An auxlang coauthored by Jan van Steenbergen, for communication between, and with, speakers of Slavic languages; circa 2006. Largely based on Old Church Slavonic. auxlang w:Interslavic languageWikipedia http://steen.free.fr/interslavic/ page Ithkuil language A logical philosophical language designed by John Quijada to express thoughts precisely and very densely. Winner of the 2008 Smiley Award. engelang Types#Logical languages Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Distinctions w:IthkuilWikipedia http://dedalvs.conlang.org/smileys/2008.html Smiley], [http://www.ithkuil.net page Khoisan language A group of African languages that, alone amongst extant natlangs, use clicks. Grouping originally proposed by Joseph Greenberg. Not related to other languages, not all related to each other either; two of them are isolates. natlang Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds#Clicks w:Khoisan languagesWikipedia Klingon language An artlang created in the 1980s for the Star Trek franchise by Marc Okrand. Possibly a few dozen fluent speakers; reportedly a couple once taught their son to speak it natively. OSV, agglutinative, sound inventory very guttural-heavy, deliberately skewed toward a war-like mentality. No verb to be, a contrarian choice that later presented a challenge when translating "To be or not to be". artlang Types#Fictional languages Klingon Láadan language An engelang created by linguist and science fiction author Suzette Haden Elgin, meant to embody the perceptions of women. Supposes a strong form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and that Western languages favor the perceptions of men. engelang FAQ#Sapir-Whorf Láadan w:LáadanWikipedia Latin language A natlang spoken originally by the ancient Romans. Served, in various forms, as a European auxiliary language for about two millennia, through Vulgar Latin, Church Latin, and Neo-Latin. Ancestor of several major western European languages — the Romance languages — through Vulgar Latin. Heavily inflected. natlang Latin https://www.omniglot.com/writing/latin2.htm Omniglot Latino sine flexione language An auxlang created by mathematician Giuseppe Peano, published in the early twentieth century. Simplification of Latin, citing inspiration from remarks of Gottfried Leibniz. The name, Latino sine flexione, means Latin without inflections. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages w:Latino sine flexioneWikipedia Lingua Ignota language Perhaps the earliest known full-blown conlang, created in the twelfth century by Hildegard of Bingen. Subject of a 2007 book by Sarah Higley. artlang w:Lingua IgnotaWikipedia Liva language An engelang created by Claudio Gnoli, starting around 1995. As often happens, there was some artistry mixed in, and a few years later Gnoli proposed what's now called the Gnoli triangle. engelang Types#In-between goals https://web.archive.org/web/20091025104823/http://www.geocities.com/gataspus/liva.htm archive Loglan language A logical language developed from the 1950s onward by sociologist Dr. James Cooke Brown as a tool suitable to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Brown asserted copyright control over aspects of the language, which caused a fork of the project, Lojban. engelang Types#Logical languages Loglan Lojban language A logical language started in 1987 as a fork of Loglan by members of Loglan's language community, in reaction to copyright claims on Loglan by its creator. Initially a relexification of Loglan. At this writing, development of Lojban is ongoing. ISO language code jbo. engelang Types#Logical languages Lojban https://mw.lojban.org/papri/Lojban page Mayan hieroglyphic Mayan hieroglyph Mayan hieroglyphs script A pictographic script used by the Mayan civilizaiton of Mesoamerica roughly from the third century BCE to the sixteenth century CE. The only native Mesoamerican script deciphered (as of this writing). Mixture of logograms and syllabograms; the syllable notation focuses on vowels. Numerals using base twenty, with a zero symbol, and 1–19 using a secondary base of five. script Intermediate/Writing w:Maya scriptWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/mayan.htm Omniglot Na'vi language An artlang created for the 2009 movie Avatar by Paul Frommer. ejective consonant Ejective consonants, providing an exotic sound manageable by the movie actors. Conjugation by infix infixes; nonconfigurational. artlang Na'vi Newspeak language A fictional planned language described by George Orwell in his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In-story, the language is designed by a totalitarian state to prevent dissident thoughts by making them impossible to express; see Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. engelang w:NewspeakWikipedia Novial language An auxlang created by linguist Otto Jespersen, first published in 1928. Jespersen split off from the Ido movement. German and Romance roots. ISO language code nov. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages Novial https://www.omniglot.com/writing/novial.htm Omniglot ogham script A rune-like script used for early Irish languages starting from perhaps the fourth century CE, or earlier. Originally twenty letters in four groups of five; later another set of five were added. Characters are attached to a continuous line, allowing rather arbitrary writing directions. It's been suggested ogham may have been an encoding of another alpahbet, though which other alphabet is no agreed upon. Used in neo-paganism mainly for divination. script w:OghamWikipedia Pakuni language An artlang created in the 1970s for children's TV show Land of the Lost by Victoria Fromkin. About three hundred words; spoken within the story world by a race of primitive humanoids. Meant to be potentially educational, simple enough for kids to learn. artlang FAQ#Is there professional conlanging? w:Victoria Fromkin#BiographyWikipedia https://www.frathwiki.com/Pakuni FrathWiki], [http://lotl.popapostle.com/html/pakuni.htm Pop Apostle Pirahã language A natlang spoken by the Pirahã tribe (estimated 250–400 speakers) in the Amazon rain forest, studied since the late 1970s by linguist Daniel Everett, with notoriously peculiar features. According to Everett, the associated culture has no art or storytelling, and the language no vocabulary for number or time, and no verb tense, very few phonemes and can also be whistled. The pronoun system seems to be borrowed from an unrelated language. Everett, who started the study under the auspices of SIL International using Noam Chomsky Chomskyist methodology, after studying the Pirahã became an atheist and opponent of the universal grammar hypothesis. natlang w:Pirahã languageWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/piraha.php Omniglot Primitive Quendian language Created by J.R.R. Tolkien as a common ancestor for his elvish languages. See diachronic; Quenya, Sindarin. artlang w:Primitive QuendianWikipedia Proto-Indo-European language Reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Easily the most intensively researched proto-language, using the comparative method notably based on classical Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit. natlang w:Proto-Indo-European languageWikipedia Quenya language An artlang created by J.R.R. Tolkien. One of the most developed of Tolkien's elvish languages. Strongly influenced by Finnish. ISO language code qya. Cf. Sindarin. artlang Types#Artistic languages Intermediate/Sounds/Phonotactics#Viable consonant clustersI:phonotactics Intermediate/Grammar/Forms#InfixesI:infixes Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#DistinctionsI:nouns Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs#Polypersonal markingI:polypersonal Quenya Qþyngài Qthyn!gai language An artlang created by conlanger Henrik Theiling. Polysynthetic; evidentiality; clicks. artlang Intermediate/Grammar/Verbs http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s7/ page Ro language A classification language created in 1904 by Edward Powell Foster. Alternating consonants and vowels progressively narrow meaning. Supporters included Melvil Dewey, creator of the Dewey Decimal System. engelang Types#Philosophical languages w:Ro (artificial language)Wikipedia rongorongo script A system of written symbols used on Easter Island (aka Rapa Nui; the southeast corner of the Polynesian Triangle, about 2000 miles/3500 kilometres west of South America). In the mid-nineteenth century, diseases and slave raids eliminated almost all the island's population, apparently including the last people who knew how to read rongorongo. Linguists now disagree on whether or not it is actually written language writing as such. script Intermediate/Writing#Writing direction w:RongorongoWikipedia Sanskrit language A natlang spoken originally about 1500 BCE in south Asia. Earliest form is called Vedic Sanskrit. Later form served as a lingua franca in India through to after 1000 CE. Now used in various liturgical and philosophical tranditions. See Proto-Indo-European. natlang Sanskrit w:SanskritWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/sanskrit.htm Omniglot SASXSEK language An auxlang created by conlanger Dana Nutter in 2003. Designed for simplicity with power. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages w:eo:sasxsekVikipedio Sindarin language An artlang created by J.R.R. Tolkien. One of the most developed of Tolkien's elvish languages. Strongly influenced by Welsh. ISO language code sjn. Cf. A Gateway to Sindarin; Quenya. artlang w:SindarinWikipedia Solresol language An auxlang created by François Sudre, from 1827 through a posthumous book in 1866. Words are built from seven phonemes, represented especially by the seven notes of the western musical scale (do through si), with alternate representations including the seven colors of the rainbow. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages w:SolresolWikipedia https://www.omniglot.com/writing/solresol.htm Omniglot Speedwords Dutton Speedwords language Aka Dutton Speedwords. An auxlang created by Reginald J. G. Dutton, developed over much of the early-to-mid twentieth century with the latest revision published in 1951. Has been assessed by conlangers as a relex of English. auxlang Types#Relexes w:Dutton SpeedwordsWikipedia http://www.carolandray.plus.com/Briefscript/SWrelex.html assessment Spocanian language An artlang created by Dutch conlanger Rolandt Tweehuysen, starting in the early 1960s. Uses word order to indicate verb tense; resultative case indicates that the referent ceases to exist. Very large vocabulary, around 25,000 words. artlang w:SpocanianWikipedia http://www.spok.demon.nl/ page TAKE το άνευ κλίσι Ελληνικό language το άνευ κλίσι Ελληνικό, Greek without inflections. A conlang created by conlanger Ray Brown around 2010. Analogous to Giuseppe Peano's Latino sine flexione. The idea of a Greek variant on Peano's idea was discussed on the CONLANG mailing list from 2006; Brown's 2010/11 effort used Classical and Koine Greek, avoiding Modern Greek. Mailing list discussion suggested a fictional background in which Alexander the Great survived to turn west and conquer the Mediterranean, which would make the language a fauxlang; Brown found the historical background constraining, and by late 2010 disavowed it, billing the project an intellectual exercise, thus an engelang. engelang Types#In-between goals http://www.carolandray.plus.com/TAKE/index.html page Talossan language A micronational language created by Robert Ben Madison in 1980 for his micronation Talossa, which he founded in 1979 at the age of 14. Has a mythical history in which it dates back to the Roman Empire. ISO language code tzl. artlang Types#Micronational languages w:Talossan languageWikipedia http://talossan.com/ page Tceqli language A logical language inspired by Loglan, that took a turn toward the naturalistic. Created by Rex May. Letter "q" in its orthography represents sound /N/ ("ng" in usual English spelling), "tc" represents /tS/, so "Tceqli" is pronounced roughly as "Cheng-Lee" (the basis for a pun on the language's web page). engelang Types#Logical languages w:eo:ĈenglioVikipedio http://ceqli.pbworks.com/w/page/5455970/FrontPage page Tengwar script A writing system created by J.R.R. Tolkien. Within Tolkien's fictional universe, a system of symbols invented by the elf Fëanor, designed to be painted with a brush, with the form of each symbol describing features of the represented speech sound. Can be used to write any spoken language, by choosing a mapping of sound features onto form features (a mode of the tengwar). ISO script code teng. (An earlier writing system within Tolkien's legendarium, by a different elf, Rúmil, is also sometimes called tengwar.) script Quenya/Tengwar w:TengwarWikipedia http://at.mansbjorkman.net/ Amanye Tenceli Teonaht language An artlang created over decades by conlanger, science fiction writer, and professor of English Sally Caves. Well-reputed in the internet conlanging community. OSV. A distinctive feature is its Law of Detachability. Winner of the 2007 Smiley Award. artlang w:TeonahtWikipedia http://dedalvs.conlang.org/smileys/2007.html Smiley], [http://www.concavities.org/teonaht/teonaht.html page Texperanto language A fauxlang created by conlanger Rex May, set in an alternative history where L.L. Zamenhof emigrated to the Republic of Texas. fauxlang Types#In-between goals http://web.archive.org/web/20091024164900/http://geocities.com/ceqli/Texperanto.html archive Thauliralau language An artlang created by conlanger Jim Henry in the 1990s. Spoken by non-humanoid. Inflections largely carried by articles rather than nouns or verbs. artlang Intermediate/Grammar/Nouns#Distinctions http://jimhenry.conlang.org/caligo/toa_tc.htm page Toki Pona language A twenty-first century conlang facilitating Taoist thinking, created by linguist Sonja Lang in 2001. Few words, no inflections at all, uncomplicated meanings, simple grammar. engelang Types#Philosophical languages Toki Pona w:Toki PonaWikipedia https://tokipona.org/ page Valyrian language A diachronic family of artlangs created for the 2011 HBO television series Game of Thrones by David J. Peterson. Parent language High Valyrian, descendants Astapori Valyrian and Meereenese Valyrian. See also Dothraki. artlang FAQ#Is there professional conlanging? w:Valyrian languagesWikipedia Verdurian language A fictional language created by conlanger Mark Rosenfelder for a Dungeons & Dragons world, circa 1995. Borrows from, without resembling, various European natlangs. artlang Types#Fictional languages w:Verdurian languageWikipedia Vorlin language A conlang created by conlanger Rick Harrison, first published in 1991; underwent major changes later. Original billed as an IAL, but continued after its author announced he was no longer developing an IAL. artlang Types#Auxiliary languages w:eo:VorlinoVikipedio http://www.vorlin.org/ page Volapük language An auxlang created in the later 1800s by German Roman Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer. Most successful auxlang before Esperanto, which was first published about ten years later. Vocabulary derived from German roots. ISO language code vo, vol. auxlang Types#Auxiliary languages Volapük https://www.omniglot.com/writing/volapuk.htm Omniglot Wenedyk language An altlang created by conlanger Jan van Steenbergen. Well reputed altlang in the internet conlanging community; blends Vulgar Latin and Slavic features supposing the Romans conquered Poland, as part of Ill Bethisad. altlang Types#Altlangs w:WenedykWikipedia http://steen.free.fr/wenedyk/ page Wilkins's philosophical language Wilkins' philosophical language language A seventeenth century classification language created by John Wilkins. Planted the idea of this type of philosophical language, later considered amongst others by Gottfried Leibniz and Peter Roget (of Roget's Thesaurus). engelang Types#Philosophical languages w:An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical LanguageWikipedia X language A purely pictographic conlang created by David J. Peterson. A trigger language. artlang FAQ#What's_a_"Language"? http://dedalvs.conlang.org/x/main.html page Ygyde language A twenty-first century philosophical language created by Andrew Nowicki. Two-letter morphemes used in compounds; consecutive vowels mark word boundaries. engelang Types#Philosophical languages http://csqbtzv.cluster029.hosting.ovh.net/ page