Cognition and Instruction/Motivation

Our motivations drive and direct our thought processes and actions. People in developed countries spend about 15,000 hours in school by the time they are 20. Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., & Ryan, R. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. It is important to understand the effects this extended school experience has on students' lives and well-being.Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., & Ryan, R. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. Research has repeatedly found that as adolescents get older, there is a decrease in their motivation to learn.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 Researchers are now focusing on ways to sustain students' motivation throughout their school experience. This chapter explains how theories and research on motivation and beliefs about one's self can be applied to teaching and learning. It emphasizes the importance of motivation in learning, and how teachers can motivate students by accommodating and adapting to their needs. Motivation has two aspects that are inter-related. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 One aspect looks at how much motivation a person has, and the second looks onto what type of motivation it is. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 There are many theories of motivation, and here we examine three that offer understanding of teaching and learning. The first theory we look at is Self-Determination theory, which looks at two types of motivation and the factors that facilitate them by fulfilling psychological needs. The second theory we examine is Goal-Orientation theory, which looks at the power of goals in relation to the environments they are constructed within. The structure of the environment generally aligns with the type of motivational goal students strive to achieve. The third theory we examine is Expectancy-Value theory, which explains motivation in terms of the expectations individuals have for their performance in particular activities, and what value performance in those activities holds for them. __TOC__ Self-Determination Theory Self- Determination Theory, first introduced by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, primarily looks at two different types of motivation.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 It states that each type of motivation is built upon a reason or goal that eventually develops into a certain behaviour. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 The first type of motivation is intrinsic motivation, which is motivation that comes within one’s self for enjoyment and self interest without external pressures or reasons.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 A student who decides to read a textbook for full pleasure and takes interest in the topic, does so because of intrinsic motivation. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020On the other hand, extrinsic motivation comes from doing something because it leads to an external outcome. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020This would be a student who solely reads a textbook because he or she knows there is going to be a test at the end and wants to do well on the test.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 Both of these types of motivation topics are extremely important to researchers and educators within the theory, because over the years there have been numerous conclusions, under the view of the Self - Determination Theory, intrinsic motivation facilitated the highest quality of learning because it included using creativity and the existence of psychological needs. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 With recent research however, there are a few approaches that state that although the highest quality of learning does still involve the core aspects of intrinsic motivation, there are ways to include extrinsic motivators to achieve the same purpose. This will be talked about more in later sections, after defining Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation more in depth. Intrinsic Motivation As mentioned above, intrinsic motivation has been concluded to facilitate the highest quality of learning, as it stimulates creativity and satisfies important yet basic psychological needs. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ According to the Self-Determination Theory there are three personal physiological needs every human tries to fulfill. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The Self-Determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ The first need is Autonomy. Autonomy is defined as being self regulation and self initiating of ones own behaviour and actions. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ A student who is autonomous would know exactly what is needed to achieve a given task and feels that they have the individual freedom to do so with effort.The second physological need is Competence which is defined as being the ability to attain different outcomes both externally and internally and is successful in doing so using the environment they are surrounded by. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ For a student this would mean the ability to do well on a difficult exam with the skills that they already have built from previous experiences.Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ Finally, the third physiological need is Relatedness. Relatedness, would be the level of connection one feels from their social environment,Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ where in the case of a student, would be when a student feels that they can relate and connect to what they’re learning as well as with the subjects around them. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_ Extrinsic Motivation The Self- Determination Theory explains that there are 4 specific types of extrinsic motivation that are different to the degree which they hold autonomy.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144.Starting from the left side of the spectrum, motivation is completely external, and as it moves in the right side direction it moves towards becoming internal.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. The least autonomous extrinsic motivation on the left spectrum is External regulation. This form of motivation is where behaviours are done to receive an incentive or to avoid a sort of punishment.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. This would be a student who decides to study for an exam strictly to get a good grade, avoid a punishment by their family members , or not be mocked by external subjects for being incapable.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. Now moving one to the right side, the next type is Introjected regulation, where motivation would occur solely to fulfill self/internal power and avoid guilt.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. A student here would change their motive of studying for an exam to elevate their ego and protect their image.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. Identified regulation comes next, which moves to a more autonomous motivation as its main reason towards acting on something is because it is seen as being valuable and useful for the future.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. For example studying hard for an exam because you want to do well for your future career would be identified regulation.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. The final type of extrinsic motivation which is the most autonomous is Integrated regulation, which is closely tied with topics that are being learned combined with one’s self interests.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. For example, a student might want to study chemistry because it will help them become a doctor which will in turn help others and society. Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. Promoting and Changing Extrinsic Motivation into Intrinsic Motivation A key reason why it is important for students to improve their intrinsic motivation is that it leads to overall improvements in both psychological health and academic success Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.. Knowing this, many educational psychologists are constantly working towards finding ways to promote the benefits of intrinsic motivation for students in both their school subjects and emotional health Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.. We can look at literacy as a clear example. On average, 73% of American children do not read for enjoyment Perie, M., Grigg, W. & Donahue, P. (2005). The nation’s report card: Reading 2005 (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, NCES 2006-451). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. and we can assume that this rate is high due to students not realizing the benefits of finding intrinsic motivation in literacy. Results show that students who enjoy reading perform higher in comprehension and overall feel more contended; Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. similarities were found with Math. Over the K-12 schooling years for students, academic intrinsic motivation for math shows to have the highest decline Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.. Math has shown to be able to energize students, and those who have intrinsic motivation have higher problem solving skills as well as higher confidence levels when solving complex problems in different aspects of life Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. Students with special needs and special education also proved to show higher rates of confidenceFroiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.. For these students, this positive impact can result in higher hopes for high school completion rates and achievements after finding intrinsic motivation.Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. In regards to emotional behaviour and health, students who were found to have high levels of intrinsic motivation were overall happier with life, and further created a friendlier and positive school environment. Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. Increased motivation also promoted positive social qualities such as being helpful, friendly, and caring. Considering this aspect, results also showed a positive decline in drug use, violence and vandalism. Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. With understanding the benefits of promoting internal motivation and also acknowledging the degrees of extrinsic motivation, we can now work towards looking at a common concern as to how to change external motivation into internal motivation in the classroom. Let us use an example of a grade 7 class that is spending time on a specific chapter in science. Some of the students feel that the content they are being taught is extremely uninteresting and pointless. The approach teachers should take in a scenario like this is the process of Internalization and Integration, which aims to promote and discover the value of what is being taught.Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. Internalization is the method of analyzing the explicit reasons as to why one chooses to do something with external motivation. Integration is process of taking those external reasons and converting them to come from one’s own self Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.. Here we will see motivation transform from something that was once external (left spectrum) to something that becomes more internal (right spectrum). Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6 However, this process can only be achieved or facilitated once students are placed into environments that are allowing them to feel self determined and fulfilled in all three psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6. The ways that teachers can support this is by allowing students to have a voice and choice in the academic activities that they engage in. Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144., assigning learning activities that are challenging with providing them with the tools and information needed to succeed in the activity.Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144., in addition, creating an environment that makes them feel valued, respected, and regarded positively by their teachers and peers. Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2), 133-144. Cognitive Evaluation Theory and Rewards On a similar note, The Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) is a sub section of the Self Determination Theory that was presented by Deci and Ryan (1985) Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.. It states that any event that becomes interpersonal or relational, and helps to promote the feeling of both competence and autonomy, will in turn cause intrinsic motivation. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.The theory however, stresses that they’re both interrelated and that the feelings of competence will not promote intrinsic motivation unless it is aided by the sense of autonomy. deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press. Moving this theory into the classroom, when teachers look at assigning a given task or assignment, they should look to see if the guidelines will fulfill the needs of competence and autonomy in the student. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 For example, this can be seen when a teacher assigns an individual project or presentation for science class. If the teacher allows the students to chose their own topic and pick between giving a project or presentation, it allows them to have control (feeling of autonomy), which in effect allows them pave their own pathway towards feeling successful (feeling of competence). Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 Under the CET, research has been continuously worked on to find the results of using rewards, feedback, and other external events on intrinsic motivation to see if it further promoted or decreased the feeling of competence and autonomy. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 The Cognitive Evaluation Theory explains that external events can do either, depending on how one’s self determination or competence is perceived Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2. If an event decreases the way one perceives them, it will decrease intrinsic motivation whereas if it increases the way they perceive them it will increase it.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2 The Cognitive Evaluation Theory also claims that the two aspects of rewards, wether they are either informational or controlling, can answer this question Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2 Informational increases intrinsic motivation and controlling decreases it.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2 To determine if a reward is either controlling or informational, it is first important to define the difference between verbal and tangible rewards.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2 Verbal Rewards are often replaced with the common term “positive feedback ”Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. It has strongly been suggested and assumed that positive feedback will increase intrinsic motivation as it is likely to fulfill a student’s need to feel competence and be informational.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. However it is important to realize that verbal rewards may have a controlling aspect as well. It can lead to a student doing actions for the sole purpose to gain appraisal and approval. (i.e. teacher or peers)Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.. The CET therefore claims that the rewards must be looked at in the terms of interpersonal context which looks at the social atmosphere that students are surrounded by( i.e. a classroom)Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Tangible Rewards are opposite of verbal words and are rewards that are strongly associated with being controlling and contributing to decreasing intrinsic motivation.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. For them to be controlling, they have to be looked at as rewards that are offered as incentives for students to do things that are out of their regular norm.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. This could mean that the student would be motivated to do something because they knew what the expected outcome of the reward was going to be. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.The CET takes this understanding and explains that expected tangible rewards are broken specifically based upon the tasks or circumstances that students are asked to participate in.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. It outlines that there are three types of reward circumstances.Ryan, R. M., Miniis, V., & Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive eval- nation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 736 750 Task-Non Contingence Rewards that are given to students for participating in an activity Task-Contingence Rewards given to students for completing an activity Performance-Contingence Rewards given to students for completing an activity, showing success, and performing well The use of rewards in the classroom has been a long term debated topic, as both researchers and teachers aim to consider what kinds of rewards are best to give to students and when they are the most appropriate to give as wellDeci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.. A recent meta analysis study was done to test the effects of verbal and tangible rewards in the classroom. The effect of verbal rewards showed exactly what was claimed above.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. When verbal rewards were informational they increased intrinsic motivation and if they were to be controlling it decreased it.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. They also found that verbal rewards had a higher significance in increasing intrinsic motivation in adolescents in college than younger students in primary school.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Similarly, similar results were found with experiment with tangible rewards as they showed to diminish intrinsic motivation. However, in this situation, the effect on students was higher in younger students than for adolescents in college.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. In regards to teachers and educators giving rewards, it can be implemented in the classroom but only to be used in an appropriate manner. Verbal Rewards are highly recommended however only when it informational.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Although Tangible Rewards show negative results, they too can also be implemented in the classroom, however the best method for implementing them include making the rewards unexpected so that the students are not aware of what will be rewarded to them.Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Teachers While working to apply the Self Determination theory in the classroom with students, it is important to analyze the environments that students are exposed to and look at the effects of how the external environment plays when working towards creating an environment that creates intrinsic motivation. Here we will look at the effects of teachers, and the effects that teachers have directly upon students. Because teachers play a major role in a student’s life , there are many ways teachers can influence students. The first way teachers can achieve this is by simply being intrinsically motivated themselves Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100. A study was done to see if intrinsic motivation from teachers could disseminate to students in a high school physical education class. Results positively showed that when working with a intrinsically motivated teacher, higher levels of intrinsic motivation in physical education were achieved than working with a teacher who was extrinsically motivated for external rewards( i.e. being paid) Radel, R., Sarrazin, P., Legrain, P. & Wild, T.C. (2010). Social contagion of motivation between teacher and student: Analyzing underlying processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 577-587. Similar results to promote an intrinsic environment were shown when a study was done to look at how teacher’s support for basic needs effected school bullying levels. The study included looking at 536 students, grades 7-9 in different Hong Kong secondary schools, where students were asked to fill out a questionnaire based on different measures they had felt throughout that semester.Lam, S., Law, W., Chan, C., Wong, B. H., & Zhang, X. (2015). A Latent Class Growth Analysis of School Bullying and Its Social Context: The Self-Determination Theory Perspective. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 75-90 Some of the questions included asking students how often they excluded someone, how often they felt they were a bully victim, and how often they felt their teacher showed support in relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Results showed that the lowest amount of bullying took place in schools when teachers had shown high levels of support in relatedness, and students had felt that they had a personal bond and open relationship with their teachers. Lam, S., Law, W., Chan, C., Wong, B. H., & Zhang, X. (2015). A Latent Class Growth Analysis of School Bullying and Its Social Context: The Self-Determination Theory Perspective. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 75-90 Expectancy Value Theory In a school and learning environment, students are always making choices when it comes to what motivates them and how they act on that motivation. These choices often revolve around how much effort to put into different activities; for example one student might not put any effort into their schoolwork, but may try exceptionally hard in sports, while another student puts effort into every class but physical education. Expectancy Value Theory; which was developed by Atkinson and built upon largely by Eccels and Wigfield, tries to explain this concept by stating that performance and choice are most strongly influenced by the specific understanding a person has on what they are capable of in different fields, and on what they find important to them.Bembenutty, H. (2012). An Interview With Allan Wigfield: A Giant on Research on Expectancy-Value, Motivation, and Reading Achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(2). 186. Culture, emotion, and outside parties such as parents or teachers have also been deemed by researchers such as Richard Pekrun to be influential in adding value to certain activities.Bembenutty, H. (2012). An Interview With Allan Wigfield: A Giant on Research on Expectancy-Value, Motivation, and Reading Achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(2). 186. Wigfield and Eccels' Model of Expectancy Value Theory One of the most well received models of the Expectancy Value Theory was initially developed in 1983 by Wigfield and Eccels, with the model still being further developed.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72. What makes Wigfield and Eccel’s model of Expectancy-Value Theory significant is that it easily applicable to teaching and learning as it examines the individual more closely. As a whole, Wigfield and Eccles' model examines ability and expectancy beliefs and personal values as significant to the expectancy-value theory.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72. Expectancies and values are influenced by an individual’s beliefs in their abilities, which tasks they define difficult or simple, goals, and past learning.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72. Expectancies and values are then in turn seen as directly influencing an individual’s choices, performance, effort, and persistence.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72. When discussing the model in the context of schooling, Eccels and Wigfield identify four different values that are present in the classroom. Intrinsic Value Utility Value Attainment Value Cost The level of enjoyment a specific activity or task gives an individual. Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS: EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9. An individual finding a certain task or activity to have a quality of usefulness; whether it is related to a present or future goal, or to please parents or friends.Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS: EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9. An individual recognizing the success in a certain activity as important.Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS: EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9. How an individual views a certain task or activity in terms of its cons, such as if any other opportunities will be lost in the place of doing this one and the amount of effort it will take to complete.Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS: EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9. These values further tie in with ability beliefs to create the certain expectancies and levels of motivation an individual sets to a certain task. Ability Beliefs are defined as an individual’s insight on how capable they are at certain kinds of tasks.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 70. Wigfeild and Eccels state that while ability beliefs are based on present ability, expectancies are based on what they expect of themselves in the future.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 70. Another important aspect of the model to examine in regards to the classroom is how a student’s expectancies and values develop over the years, and when they start to develop. Wigfield and Eccles state that children start recognizing what activities they are good or bad at and what value different activities have from as early as kindergarten or grade one.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75. This includes the various domains found within a school environment, such as math, reading, music, and sports.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75. These insights on what areas they were successful in also changes over the years as students continue learning. For example, ability and expectancy beliefs for reading generally increase from a grade four student to a grade seven or grade ten student,Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75. meaning that an individual who does not view themselves as a strong and confident reader may eventually become confident in their reading skills.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 76. This is especially significant because it shows that teachers can try to help students develop their values and expectancies in different subjects. However, an individual can also experience a decline in their values and expectancies for different subjects.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 76. For example, students tend to value math more in elementary school than they do in high school.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77. Wigfield and Eccel’s model describes that this can be due to two main reasons; first that children become better at self-assessment through criticism and comparison and can therefore highlight weaknesses in their abilities and in what they value.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77. The second explanation is that the school environment changes over the years of elementary and high school by becoming more competitive, which leads to students adjusting their expectancies for achievement.Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77. Raising Value in the Classroom A first question to ask when examining ways to increase student value towards class material is what makes value something worth spending time on? In 2012, a research study by Gregory Liem and Bee Leng Chua was done to examine expectancy and value in the classroom and which were more effective in student raising motivation and performance. The study consisted of a sample of 1664 Indonesian high school students in Civic Education classes in West Java.Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33, 290. Selected from a total of six schools, the 1664 students included 812 males and 852 females from the Year 7 to Year 12.Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33, 291. In order to assess whether expectancies or values were more influential, Liem and Chua gave the students a set of questionnaires that assessed what the students expected from themselves in their civic education classes, how they valued the class, their future goals, their civic capital, and factors such as gender and school level.Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33, 291. Overall, the questionnaires showed that though expectancies were effective, values had a much stronger effect on individual students’ motivation and performance (304). This means that in a teaching setting, it is important to try to make connections to the different values that may be present in students. As discussed earlier, Wigfield and Eccles’ model identifies four different values; utility value, intrinsic value, attainment value, and cost. 1. Strengthening Utility and Attainment Values In Liem and Chua’s study, it was also found that motivation to learn and interest in material in the civic education class were especially strong if the student’s future and career goals were related to civic education.Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33. This means that as the subject material had a direct quality of usefulness to those students, they possessed a higher utility value for the subject material.Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33. Furthermore, the direct utility value the students shared with the material also raised a higher attainment value, meaning that it was important for them to do well in that classLiem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 33.. Therefore an effective way to get students more motivated to engage with certain material is to teach them why education is important, why the specific lesson is useful to them, and how it connects to the future role they will play in society. Though university students have a better understanding of which courses offer utility value, high school and elementary students may need extra help from teachers to explain why the connection is useful to them. For example, for high school students some ways to engage utility value is to discuss any university programs or future career goals they may be interested in and make explain how that course is relevant to them; such as explaining that a programming class can provide a good knowledge base for any who want to go into Information technology. For activities such as essay writing, this may make a student more eager to learn and motivate them to do well in the class; especially as students are starting to look into universities. Engaging utility value in elementary students may be extra beneficial for the students as an early understanding of why education of certain material is important may increase the students overall desire to learn and engage in schooling. As elementary teachers work more closely with the same group of students in every subject, they have a unique opportunity to appeal to their students as to why certain material is important. One of the best ways to do this is to be selective of what material is chosen to teach and how to teach it while still staying within curriculum, which can also be taken into account for high school students. For example, Jere Brophy of the University of Michigan states there are three significant steps that can be taken to aid in this.Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students' Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 132-141. Step Significance 1. Curriculum Development Careful selection of curriculum to make sure everything the students are learning is worth learning while still following school requirements.Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students' Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 132-141. 2. Scaffolding Application Apply scaffolding techniques to make sure students are given plenty of opportunities to develop new skills and learn for themselves how to apply what was learned while making sure they are applying their knowledge in beneficial ways.Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students' Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 132-141. 3. Lesson Framing Frame Lessons in a way that makes sure to explain the value and application of all material and skills being taught. Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students' Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 132-141. Overall, explanation and understanding is the key to engaging student’s utility and attainment value by having students understand how to apply the skills they are learning and why they should want to succeed in learning them. 2. Engaging Intrinsic Value As stated earlier, intrinsic value is the level of interest or enjoyment a student finds in lesson material. Intrinsic Value is closely related to the Self-Determination Theory aspect of intrinsic motivation that was described earlier, as whenIan individual finds intrinsic value in a task, it can become intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic value and intrinsic motivation can be very varied depending on the individual as all individuals have their own specific interests. This also means that what an individual finds intrinsic value in cannot be changed with extrinsic factors. Therefore, as teachers cannot change what a student finds interest in, one of the most effective ways for a teacher to raise student intrinsic value is to build and maintain a good relationship with their students. Overall, studies show that an emotionally and academically supportive teacher can lead to higher interest and intrinsic motivation, and therefore higher academic effort. A study conducted by Julia Dietrich a, Anna-Lena Dicke , Barbel Kracke and Peter Noack with math teachers shows how positive and negative relationships with teachers can affect both the individual and the classroom.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 On an individual level, a supportive teacher led to higher positive associations with intrinsic value, effort, and long-term development in math;Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 while an unsupportive teacher led to a negative association and lower development. On a classroom level, a shared perception between students of a teacher as supportive led to a positive association of class levels of intrinsic value and motivation, with increased skill development over the year.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 However, if a class deemed a teacher unsupportive, class levels of motivation were lowered.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 This shows that it is overall beneficial try to provide students with emotional and academic support. However, this is further developed by good relationships with multiple teachers, as it leads to positive comparison.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 Dietrich et al’s paper describes this Comparative Process as comparing one’s own achievements with their own achievements in other classes or with other students.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 This process can also occur between experiences with other teachers. For example, if a student finds the teacher of one grade or subject to be less supportive than another teacher, their motivation in the class of the less-supportive teacher may decrease.Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influence on students' intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54 This shows that while it is important to ensure that a teacher is creating an emotionally and academically supportive environment, it is equally important that all teachers and staff work together to ensure that they are all setting a similar teaching standard for their students. 3. Overcoming Cost Of all of the values described in Wigfield and Eccle's model, cost is the most unique as it is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Though engagement of the other values may limit the amount of negatives a student identifies in a task by increasing its importance, many of the qualities of a task that influence an individual student to make decisions are outside of the teachers control. This increases as students get older and begin to be in charge of more decisions, for example a high school or university student picking their courses. An article by Jessica Flake et al describes how cost can be split into four identifications, Task Effort Cost, Outside Effort Cost, Loss of Valued Alternatives Cost, and Emotional Learning Cost.Flake, Jessica, Barron, Kenneth, Hulleman, Christopher, McCoach, Betsy, and Welsh, Megan. "Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory" Contemporary Educational Psychology. 41, 232-244. The chart below is an adaptation of a chart shown in Flake's article that explains how different costs lead to different decisions and behavior. Framed|Adapted from work by Jessica Flake et al, in "Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory"Flake, Jessica, Barron, Kenneth, Hulleman, Christopher, McCoach, Betsy, and Welsh, Megan. "Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory" Contemporary Educational Psychology. 41, 232-244. Though teachers may not be able to limit what cost values a student might be influenced by, learning how these costs affect student's decisions can provide a deeper understanding of why students make specific choices. This can then better prepare a teacher to cater to the needs of individual students and identify specific problems. Raising Expectancy in the Classroom Though the Wigfield and Eccle’s model of Expectancy-Value theory focuses more strongly on values, expectancy and ability beliefs are still fundamental the theory’s application. As mentioned earlier, building on student values within the classroom is an effective way to also raise expectancy. However, there are still other ways that expectancies can be built upon. Furthermore, as expectancy and ability beliefs are considered to be more domain specific over activity specific,Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72 they can be improved in a much more general way than values. For example, one of the most applicable ways to raise expectancy in the classroom is by building on base skills. The Importance of Reading Programs Improving students' expectancy and motivation in reading is one of the most effective and easily applied ways to increase an individual’s overall expectancy. As reading is a base skill, a higher expectancy in reading skills can then make a student more confident in their overall learning abilities. A study by Christopher Nkechi showed that the implication of Extensive Reading Programs; a program that requires students to read several books over a span of a few months, were beneficial in increasing motivation through raising self-expectancy in reading.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. Many researchers have done studies showing that these programs are extremely beneficial for students whose first language is not the language being taught, with many examples using English as the second language. However, Nkechi showed that these Extensive Reading Programs are also extremely beneficial for students who already speak the language being taught, using native English speakers in his study.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. One of the main aspects of the Extensive Reading Program used in Nkechi’s study was Literary Circles. Literary Circles is a group activity that uses scaffolding strategies by assigning each group of students with a novel to read, and then requiring each student to go through a rotation of assigned roles.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. These roles not only encourage the students that might otherwise be disengaged or unwilling to read the novel in order to keep up with their group, but require the students to find meaning and message in their readings.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. For Nkechi’s study, 96 students were split into groups and rotated through three to four novels.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. Each student was then asked to fill out a questionnaire about their expectations for the program both before and after completion of the program. Once the students completed their program after several months, the results showed that the program overall raised student expectancies and beliefs in their reading ability.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. Overall, the study showed that Extensive Reading programs help students become more capable in different aspects of language and how to use their capabilities in different forms of media and activities.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. These ER programs also help develop vocabulary, which is significant as in order to make sense and meaning of texts an individual needs a 97-98% vocabulary coverage.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. Though lessons can target and teach certain specific words, these reading programs supply students with general vocabulary and how to recognize it.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. Extensive Reading programs also supply a student with more exposure to grammatical laws, which can provide deeper examples after the basics have been taught to them.Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169. As reading provides a base from which to learn many different subjects, increase in expectancy in reading abilities can also help raise expectancy in other subjects where reading in order to understand subject material is required. Therefore, as a whole these programs are easily implemented in a classroom and are successful in increasing students expectancies in reading and comprehension in all subjects. Goal Orientation Theory Early conceptualizations of goal orientation theory are derived from James A. Eison's work on dimensions of student's learning and grade orientations.Eison, J A. (1982). Educational and personal dimensions of learning and grade-oriented students. Psychological Reports, 51, 867-870. Eison looked at the structure of student's educational and personal differences; he viewed them in relation to learning for genuine acquirement of knowledge, versus performing for attaining high grades.Eison, J A. (1982). Educational and personal dimensions of learning and grade-oriented students. Psychological Reports, 51, 867-870. Subsequently, Dweck postulated similar ideas categorizing mastery and performance goal orientation.Fan, J., Meng, H., Billings, R S., Litchfield R C., & Kaplan, I. (2008). On the role of goal orientation traits and self-efficacy in the goal-setting process: distinctions that make a difference. Human Performance, 21, 354-382. Dweck's work established goal orientation theory as a two-dimension construct wherein students either approach situations with the motivation to master and acquire new skills, or perform in order to gain approval and do better in comparison to others.Fan, J., Meng, H., Billings, R S., Litchfield R C., & Kaplan, I. (2008). On the role of goal orientation traits and self-efficacy in the goal-setting process: distinctions that make a difference. Human Performance, 21, 354-382. People have different reasons for setting goals and as such, each person approaches their goals differently. Goal-orientation theory seeks to explain the underlying implications of motivation in academics.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Students are categorized by their mastery goal orientations or performance goal orientations.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. A mastery goal orientation reflects genuine purpose as people work towards mastering a set of skills in order to accomplish a task.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Students with mastery goal orientations pursue goals for their own sake.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. It is important for teachers to structure lessons that assist students in obtaining a mastery goal orientation. Teachers can accomplish this by relating learning to personal growth and by co-constructing objectives that are relevant to the student's interests.Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence: Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291. Consequently, by focusing on personal growth in the learning process, teachers can increase intrinsic motivation which activates a mastery goal orientation.Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence: Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291. Studies have also found students that adopt mastery goal orientations demonstrate more adaptive self-regulatory behaviors and social attitudes, which contribute to an increased interest in learning.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers must be willing to continually adjust their methods and instructions in order to create optimal learning conditions. In doing so, they create an environment that aligns with their student's goal orientations. The instructional approach must avoid tasks that encourage memorization and rehearsal, for example.Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence: Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291. However, how can teachers ensure their students are learning appropriate information without incorporating tests and exams? Teachers can facilitate in-class discussions, group projects, papers, and presentations in order to gauge the level of understanding and also the amount of content being absorbed by students.Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence: Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291. Performance goal orientations highlight how well an individual can demonstrate success in tasks and understanding.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Performance-oriented individuals are competitive and focused on personal gain prompted by extrinsic rewards.Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence: Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291. Furthermore, mastery and performance goals can be divided into subcategories of avoidance. Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. The former, describes students who wish to avoid misunderstanding tasks, lessons, or instructions; the latter, describes students who wish to avoid appearing incompetent during performance. Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. Overall, students with mastery avoidance and performance avoidance goals fear failure.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers must avoid creating a class atmosphere that is high risk and high reward. That is, they must place less emphasis on external motivation and achievement in relation to others.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. The structure of the classroom is contingent on the teacher's representations of goals, values, and beliefs; for example, does the teacher focus on how well students perform in comparison to one another, or how the students improve throughout the year?Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Students can have adaptive goal orientations because they engage in multiple goal paths.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Studies also identify a combination of learning and performance cues that exist outside the classroom; two prime examples are the ways in which parents and peers influence student motivation.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Consequently, teachers need to be aware of how parents and peers contribute to shaping of a mastery goal orientation. Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. In a longitudinal study conducted by Juyeon Song, Mimi Bong, Kyehyoung Lee, and Sung-il Kim, surveys were administered to assess variables in learning and home environments that influenced student's motivation; psychological attitudes students felt towards school were included in the assessment as well. Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. Subsequently, the data was used to measure the degree of perceived support from parents and teachers; they found that certain types of support promoted different types of goal orientations.Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. Parents and teachers that stressed achievement increased test anxiety, compared to parents and teachers who supported students with emotional encouragement.Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. The preceding study supports the notion that teachers need to foster intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. They can do so by continuing to nurture student's emotional development so there is no discrepancy between the care and support they receive at home and at school; in this way, teachers are also able to combine the student's home and school lives representing a comfortable space for students to develop their learning.Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. Moreover, offering emotional support shows student's that they are worthy of care and this can reverse adverse effects of achievement pressure.Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821-841. Another study by Javier Fernandez-Rio, Jose A. Cecchini, and Antonio Mendez-Gimenez tested cooperative intervention programs against traditional teaching programs in order to find out which method generated more intrinsic motivation. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 The study participants were university students between their early twenties and early forties. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 The participants were split into either an experimental condition in which they were taught through cooperative reciprocal learning, or they were placed in the control condition wherein traditional unilateral instruction was applied. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 The cooperative intervention program influenced positive perceptions of competence and enhanced intrinsic motivation. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 In addition, cooperative learning encouraged students to work with one another and problem solve together. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 If applied in a classroom setting, cooperative learning supports mastery goal orientations through peer to peer interaction as they learn to work together and not against each other; as they are required to solve problems and work through differences to achieve a common goal. Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71 Both of the studies presented above hold important implications for the classroom. Finding the source of motivation can also assist in guiding future goals, achievement goals, social goals, and personal well-being goals towards a more mastery oriented goal state.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Parents and peers are significant influences in a student's motivation and as such, teachers must learn to implement their influence in the class. The studies presented above provide teachers with strategies and techniques to approach their class with. Applying social goals in particular, can create more opportunities for peer to peer involvement and can foster a cooperative class climate as well.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Feeling comfortable and connected to peers helps students discover meaning which enhances the development of a mastery goal orientation.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. The sociocultural framework helps teachers investigate motivation through its use in cross-cultural contexts.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. It enables teachers to identify aspects of the class climate that sustain mastery; for example, by allocating more time for group work and discussions.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Parent, teacher and peer involvement are intertwined; teachers must always keep this in mind so they can understand their students and their intentions for learning. Consequently, teachers can support mastery by guiding future goals, achievement goals, social goals, and personal well-being goals if they involve all aspects of the student's home, school, and social life.Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519. Assessment and intervention are two methods in goal-orientation theory that can help identify and shape the types of goal orientations that will persist in the class.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. One way teachers can assess whether a mastery or performance goal orientation exists is by applying interventions such as the Likert scale.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Questionnaires help teachers get a feel for the class’ impressions and expectations. Surveys also assist teachers in acquiring important information about their student’s beliefs regarding success in the class.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers can use this data to reorder their instructional process and better explain a path to meaningful success. Surveys are beneficial because they can vary in specificity and target information.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. For example, asking students to share their aspirations and motivations can provide insight into student conceptualization of the learning process and therefore, assist teachers in setting classroom objectives that support a mastery goal orientation. In the same way mastery goal orientations can balance performance goal orientation, qualitative methods can complement quantitative methods.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. In applying a diverse range of methodology such as open and structured observations, talk-aloud protocols, conversation analysis, life history and ethnography, teachers can gain a fuller understanding of the nature and origins of goal orientations.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Goal Structures There are two types of goal structures that align with the mastery and performance goal orientations.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. The goal structure however, refers to the environment and the ways in which outside conditions can affect student’s motivation, cognitive engagement and achievement.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. It emphasizes the specific goals to be achieved in the classroom by way of instruction and practice.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. The teacher must be cautious when organizing the curriculum as the types of tasks delegated and marking process influence goal structure.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. In addition, the level of freedom students are given to explore and group arrangement, both contribute to forming a particular classroom goal structure.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. As noted above there are two types of goal structures known as mastery goal structure and performance goal structure.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. A mastery goal structure embodies a learner focused environment wherein the standards and policies encourage students to try hard and do their best.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Teachers can create a mastery goal structure through clear explanations of the objectives; for instance, by telling students the purpose of performing tasks is to expand their knowledge.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Teachers that offer choice in their activities, such as allowing students to pick their own essay or presentation topics, piques interest by targeting subjects students are passionate about. Students are taught to value themselves as well as the learning process in this way as well.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. A performance goal structure creates an atmosphere of rivalry and competition.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Success comes from obtaining extrinsic rewards and performing competently in various tasks.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Teachers can better shape their classrooms by determining which goal structures foster approach and avoidance goals.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. For example, mastery goal structures foster mastery approach goals.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Teachers can administer anonymous surveys and the questions can help indicate whether students acquire more of a mastery or performance goal orientation. In addition, because goal structures usually mirror the environmental conditions, they are observed as impacting the specific goal orientations that students adopt.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Applying this to a classroom setting, teachers must remain cognizant of the goals students perceive as being important in the class because they will correspond to their personal goal orientations.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Research has proposed that teachers who placed higher worth on learning and working hard resulted in students viewing their environment as mastery structured; therefore, students were more likely to assume a mastery goal orientation.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Teachers can implement classroom contracts at the beginning of the school year to solidify the working conditions. Cultivating mastery goal structure enhances student drive for more challenging work and they are better able to adapt in order to succeed.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Students learn to effectively employ learning strategies in the presence of mastery goal structures as well.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Self-report measures assist teachers in identifying connections and discrepancies within student’s goal structures and goal orientations; they are able to analyze reported levels of choice, effort and persistence in order to understand a student’s adaptive motivational engagement.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Ultimately, mastery goal structures promote mastery goal orientations that encourage intrinsic motivation, cognitive engagement and achievement.Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Mastery Goal Orientation and Performance Goal Orientation Goal orientations originate in schemas and can be made purposeful in context.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Students perceive cues and prompts from the situation that leads them to adopt either mastery goal orientations or performance goal orientations.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Asking student’s questions about their past can trigger positive intrinsic experiences that reactivate their schemas for mastery goals.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. By asking students to draw upon experiences of happiness and success during their academic careers, teachers place more of an emphasis on mastery goal orientation that can be similarly attained in the class.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Questions that require deep reflection also help students continually adapt and challenge their goals to coincide with their mastery goal structures.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Students can recognize differential emphases on mastery goal orientation and performance goal orientation.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Subsequently, they align their perspectives and behaviors accordingly.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Tasks, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time are all aspects of the class setting that influence goal orientation.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. The following examples illustrate the implications and relationships to instruction. Tasks Teachers must consider what they are asking their students to do when assigning specific tasks.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. What is the outcome they wish to obtain? If teachers are asking students to listen to a lecture and soon after write a quiz, students will adopt a performance goal orientation.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. The demand level and structure of such a task places external pressure on students and detracts from a meaningful experience.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. In order to prevent this from happening, the teacher can engage students through a more flexible task structure.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. For example, allowing students to participate in an online discussion forum allows them to go at their own pace and use their creativity.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Discussion forums are powerful because students can internalize input from their peers in order to create meaning.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Authority Authority refers to the teacher’s dominancy or openness towards the structure of the class rules and regulations.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Strict regulations and rules reflect intolerance for change insinuating students are not active participants in decision-making for their own learning.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. However, teachers can create contracts with students in order to layout guidelines and responsibilities.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Furthermore, instructors can assign a date in the middle of the school year to request feedback and make revisions if necessary.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. In this way teachers demonstrate their concern for student's wellbeing and personal growth.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Recognition Recognition addresses the outcomes and actions that must be attended to in order to foster mastery goal structures.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Extending effort, taking risks, being creative, sharing ideas and learning from mistakes are all acceptable and functional behaviors to encourage within the classroom.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. In addition, teachers should express praise in private because publically commending students can foster competition and undermine the abilities of others.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Grouping Grouping takes different dynamics into consideration.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Criteria includes appreciating differences by grouping students with different domains of interests together; in doing so, students are given the opportunities to share, interact and interpret perspectives outside their own.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Groups represent the inherently social climate embedded in the class.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Mastery is co-constructed as teachers and peers participate in guided meaning making. Evaluation Evaluation communicates much about task, teacher and overall course objectives.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Therefore the manner in which evaluation is carried out holds vast implications for both instructors and students.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers must avoid comparing students based on final outcomes and they can do so by evaluating based on progress, creativity and mastery of skills.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Much like recognition, evaluations should also be conducted in private.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers can implement weekly progress reports and students can track their personal growth. Allowing students to measure their mastery of skills also allows the teacher to gauge what types of adjustments and provisions could be offered. Time Time is a critical factor in establishing a mastery goal structure and mastery goal orientation appropriately.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Time restrictions communicate completion over quality. For this reason, teachers should be accommodating by letting students work at their own pace.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Teachers must also be open to allocating time according to the level of task difficulty.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. For example, although some students can complete their work by the end of class, other students may feel anxious from the time pressure and thus, require more time. Moreover, teachers can leave more class time to complete work, but allow students to take the material home as homework if work remains incomplete.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Mastery goal orientations maintain a stronger motivation to learn because they nurture personal growth in the learning process while fostering an ongoing desire to improve.Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Tasks Authority Recognition Grouping Evaluation TimeAllowing student to choose their own topics for researchInstructor is open to collaborating with studentsIdentifying creativity and learning from mistakesGrouping by diversity; pairing students with a variety of learning strategiesHolistic approach reviewing progress and development; encouraging reflectionAllocating an adequate amount of time for learning and structuring knowledge Mastery Avoidance and Performance Avoidance Mastery avoidance goals and performance avoidance goals are concerned with the image one reflects.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. For example, students with a desire to avoid performing poorly and appearing incompetent in comparison to others are concerned with performance avoidance goals; whereas, students concerned with mastery avoidance goals strive to avoid misunderstanding the task or material presented.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. Performance avoidance goals have been tied to negative outcomes and low achievement.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. Generally, performance orientations are less adaptive than mastery orientations regardless of the approach or avoidance orientation that results.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. Moreover, in relation to the self, performance avoidance goals are associated with negative emotions and overall, wellbeing. Subsequently, students characterized by mastery avoidance fear becoming incompetent as a task and strive to evade it at all costs.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. Akin to performance avoidance goals, findings have revealed that mastery avoidance goals are also linked to maladaptive outcomes including poor implementation of cognitive strategies and procrastination.Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school: Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 268-279. It is not enough to encourage mastery goal structures and mastery goal orientations in the class; teachers must also understand the roles that avoidance orientations play and their implications for instruction. Summary of Motivation The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate how motivation can be increased in the classroom through certain popular theories such as the Self-Determination Theory, the Expectancy Value Theory, and the Goal Orientation Theory. In general, we can see that a good reason to encourage intrinsic motivation is because it leads to increased levels in both psychological health and academic success. Setting the context for learning is an important aspect of the teaching environment because it influences the goals set out for the class. Encouraging intrinsic motivation supports student's genuine purpose and passion to master skills. In the self-determination theory we saw that intrinsic motivation is triggered once students feel fulfilled in three psychological needs which are autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In the expectancy value theory we looked at how a student's performance and choice are influenced by what they expect of themselves as well as what they value. More importantly, we look at how to increase expectancy and value in the classroom in order to raise motivation. In the goal-orientation theory we saw that evaluations hold important implications in the classroom by allowing time for reflection on the development of mastery. Through this chapter we hope that present and future educators can use these applications as a way to increase motivation in the class. Suggested Reading Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals Eccles, Jacquelynne, & Wigfield, Allan. (2002). Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals. Annual review of Psychology, 53. 109-132. Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81. The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184. Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students' Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goal Contents in Self-Determination Theory: Another Look at the Quality of Academic Motivation. Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 41(1), 19-31. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4 Glossary Ability Beliefs: Ability Beliefs are the beliefs an individual has on how capable they are at certain kinds of tasks. Attainment Value: Attainment Value is the value an individual finds in a certain task or activity from recognizing that success in that activity is important to them. Autonomy: Autonomy is the ability to be self regulated and self initiating of ones' own behaviour and actions. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET): The Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a sub section of the Self Determination Theory that was presented by Deci and Ryan (1985). It states that any event that becomes interpersonal or relational, and helps to promote the feeling of both competence and autonomy, will in turn cause intrinsic motivation. Competence: Competence is the ability to attain different outcomes both externally and internally by using the environment they are surrounded by. Cost: Cost is the negative qualities that an individual attaches to certain activities or tasks. Examples of this include missed opportunities from selection of that task over others, and the amount of effort the activity will take. Curriculum Development: Curriculum Development is the careful selection of curriculum and content to ensure that everything students are being asked to learn is worth learning. Expectancy Value Theory: Expectancy Value Theory is a theory first developed by Atkinson that defines performance and choice as being influenced by the certain values and self-expectations an individual has for certain activities. Extensive Reading Programs: Extensive Reading Programs are programs that require students to read several books over a span of a few months, and are beneficial in increasing motivation through raising self-expectancy in reading. Goal-Orientation Theory: Goal-orientation theory explains the reasons and choices individuals make that maintain motivation. The theory states that individuals have two major goal orientations; mastery goal orientations and performance goal orientations. Goal Structure: Goal structures embody the learning environment. Goal structures are shaped by the language used by an instructor, the assigned tasks, and the incentives employed to facilitate learning. Intrinsic Value: Intrinsic Value is the level of enjoyment and interest an individual finds in a specific activity or task. Lesson Framing Lesson Framing is the structuring of lessons in a way that makes sure to explain the value and application of all material and skills being taught. Literary Circles: Literary Circles is a method used in Extensive Reading Programs that uses scaffolding strategies by splitting students into groups, assigning each group of students with a novel to read, and then requiring each student to go through a rotation of assigned roles. Each group typically reads more than one novel together. Mastery Avoidance: Mastery avoidance is the desire to avoid misunderstanding tasks and information. Mastery Goal Orientation: Mastery goal orientation focuses on intrinsic growth and development. Individuals who acquire a mastery goal orientation are genuinely motivated and value the learning process. Mastery Goal Structure: Mastery goal structures influence mastery goal orientations. Mastery goal structures foster learner focused environments based on intrinsic motivation. Performance Avoidance: Performance avoidance is the desire to avoid performing poorly and appearing incompetent in comparison to others. Performance Goal Orientation: Performance goal orientation focuses on extrinsic rewards such as grades, prizes, and praise. Individuals who acquire a performance goal orientation only wish to appear competent in relation to others. Performance Goal Structure: Performance goal structures influence performance goal orientations. Performance goal structures foster competitive environments based on extrinsic reward. Relatedness: Relatedness is the level of connection one feels from their social environment. Scaffolding Application: Scaffolding Application is the application of scaffolding techniques to ensure that students are given opportunities to develop new skills and learn for themselves how to apply the skills they have learned. The Self- Determination Theory: Self- Determination Theory , first introduced by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, and is a sub section of motivation that primarily looks at two different types of motivation. It states that each type of motivation is built upon a reason or goal that eventually develops into a certain behaviour. Utility Value: Utility value an individual finds in a task or activity related to the degree to which an individual finds a certain task or subject to be useful to any short term or long term goals. Wigfield and Eccles' Model of Expectancy Value Theory: Wigfield and Eccles' model of the Expectancy-Value theory states that expectancies and values are influenced by an individual’s beliefs in their abilities, which tasks they define difficult or simple, goals, and past learning. References