Koine Greek/Declining 3rd Declension Nouns

3rd Declension Noun Tables + ὁ παῖς — childSingularPluralπαῖςπαῖδεςπαιδóςπαίδωνπαιδῐ́παισίπαῖδᾰπαῖδᾰς παῖπαῖδες + ὁ γίγας — giant Singular Plural γίγαςγίγαντες γίγαντοςγιγάντων γίγαντιγίγασι(ν) γίγανταγίγαντας γίγανγίγαντες + ὁ θής — hired man Singular Plural θήςθῆτες θητόςθητῶν θητίθησί(ν) θῆταθῆτας θήςθῆτες + ἡ λαμπάς — torch Singular Plural λαμπάςλαμπάδες λαμπάδοςλαμπάδων λαμπάδιλαμπάσι(ν) λαμπάδαλαμπάδας λαμπάςλαμπάδες + ὁ/ἡ ὄρνις — bird Case Singular Plural Nom. ὄρνιςὄρνιθες Gen. ὄρνιθοςὀρνίθων Dat. ὄρνιθιὄρνισι(ν) Acc. ὄρνινὄρνιθας Voc. ὄρνιςὄρνιθες + ἡ ἐλπίς — hope Singular Plural ἐλπίςἐλπίδες ἐλπίδοςἐλπίδων ἐλπίδιἐλπίσι(ν) ἐλπίδαἐλπίδας ἐλπίἐλπίδες + ὁ δαίμων — divinity Singular Plural δαίμωνδαίμονες δαίμονοςδαιμόνων δαίμονιδαίμοσι(ν) δαίμοναδαίμονας δαῖμονδαίμονες + ὁ ἄρχων — ruler Case Singular Plural Nom. ἄρχωνἄρχοντες Gen. ἄρχοντοςἀρχόντων Dat. ἄρχοντιἄρχουσι(ν) Acc. ἄρχονταἄρχοντας Voc. ἄρχονἄρχοντες Masculine Nouns παιδ child δαιμον divinity, spirit ἀρχοντ ruler The first set of nouns are all MASCULINE in gender. These particular masculine nouns add the following suffixes to their stem to indicate number and case: CaseSingularPluralNom.–ς–εςGen.–ος–ωνDat.–ι–σιAcc.–α–ας The Trouble with Sigma Two case endings add sigma to the stem: nominative singular –ς and dative plural –σι. These nouns have stems ending in a dental consonant: stops –τ, –δ, –θ, or nasal –ν. When σ follows a dental stop, the dental disappears (δ + σ = σ). When σ follows –ν, the σ sometimes disappears instead (ν + σ = ν), often causing compensatory lengthening of the preceding short vowel. Long vowels and diphthongs cannot be lengthened further. These sound changes explain the spelling of the three nouns below. + ὁ παῖς, παιδός child Case Singular Plural Nominative (παιδς→ ) παῖς παῖδες Genitive παιδός παίδων Dative παιδί (παιδσι→ ) παισί Accusative παῖδα παῖδας + ὁ δαίμων, δαίμονος divinity Case Singular Plural Nominative (δαιμονς→ ) δαίμων δαίμονες Genitive δαίμονος δαιμόνων Dative δαίμονι (δαιμονσι→ ) δαίμοσι Accusative δαίμονα δαίμονας + ὁ ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος ruler Case Singular Plural Nominative (ἀρχοντς→ ) ἄρχων ἄρχοντες Genitive ἄρχοντος ἀρχόντων Dative ἄρχοντι (ἀρχοντσι→ ) ἄρχουσι Accusative ἄρχοντα ἄρχοντας Spell It Like It Sounds! Words ending in –σι may add a final –ν (movable nu) for easier pronunciation: εἴκοσί εἰσι → εἴκοσίν εἰσι. Thus, παισί may appear as παισίν, without changing its parsing, meaning, or translation. Noun Vocabulary 3rd-decl. nouns are listed with the definite article, nominative singular, and genitive singular (e.g., ὁ ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος). The article indicates gender, the nom. sg. provides the citation form, and the gen. sg. reveals the noun stem, usually by removing –ος (ἄρχοντος → ἀρχοντ-). Memorize all three forms, since the nom. sg. may conceal changes to the stem. Nouns and the Persistent Accent Greek nouns generally use persistent accentuation: the accent tends to remain on the same vowel as the noun is declined, unless accent rules require it to shift or change type. The accent pattern must be learned from the nom. sg. (e.g., ἄρχων and ἡγεμών have different accent positions). In masc. and fem. nouns of this pattern, the nom. sg. ending –ς adds no syllable, but other case endings may add syllables, changing the accented vowel’s position relative to the end of the word. Three general patterns describe accentuation in 3rd-decl. nouns: 1. When the accent is on the penult of oblique and plural forms… It stays there. If the penult is long, the accent is a circumflex with short ultima, acute with long ultima. Case Singular Plural Nom. αἰών αἰῶνες Gen. αἰῶνος αἰώνων Dat. αἰῶνῐ αἰῶσῐ Acc. αἰῶνᾰ αἰῶνᾰς If the penult is short, the accent remains acute throughout all forms. Case Singular Plural Nom. ἡγεμών ἡγεμόνες Gen. ἡγεμόνος ἡγεμόνων Dat. ἡγεμόνῐ ἡγεμόσῐ Acc. ἡγεμόνᾰ ἡγεμόνᾰς The rule for accents that fall on the penult is identical to that of verbs with only two syllables! 2. When the accent is on the antepenult of oblique and plural forms… The accent can only be acute on the antepenult. If the ultima becomes long (e.g., genitive plural –ων), the accent moves to the penult. Case Singular Plural Nom. ᾰ̓́ρχων ᾰ̓́ρχοντες Gen. ᾰ̓́ρχοντος ᾰ̓ρχόντων Dat. ᾰ̓́ρχοντῐ ᾰ̓́ρχουσῐ Acc. ᾰ̓́ρχοντᾰ ᾰ̓́ρχοντᾰς Note that the rule for accents that fall on the antepenult is identical to that of verbs with three or more syllables! 3. When the accent falls on a monosyllabic nominative singular noun… The accent usually moves to the ultima of the genitive and dative cases, singular and plural. In these situations, the accent on the ultima is acute over short vowels (e.g. –ός), and circumflex over long (e.g. –ῶν). This accent pattern is irregular, and must be memorized. Case Singular Plural Nom. πούς πόδες Gen. ποδός ποδῶν Dat. ποδῐ́ ποσῐ́ Acc. πόδᾰ πόδᾰς There are a handful of monosyllabic nouns that instead accent the penult of the genitive plural. The most common ones are ὁ, ἡ παῖς, παιδός child (genitive plural = παίδων), declined above, φῶς, φωτός light (genitive plural = φώτων), and οὖς, ὠτός ear (genitive plural = ὤτων). Feminine Nouns In our last lesson, we learned endings for nouns that were masculine. Now we add nouns that are feminine. For the 3rd declension, feminine nouns use the same case endings as masculine nouns: Case Singular Plural Nominative –ς –ες Genitive –ος –ων Dative –ι –σι Accusative –α –ας The Trouble with Sigma As noted in our discussion of masculine nouns, two of the case endings involve adding a sigma to the stem: nominative singular = –ς, dative plural = –σι. Let us take a look at the sound changes that occur when these sigmas are added to the stems for two feminine nouns: ἐλπιδ hope νυκτ night Note that the first stem, ἐλπιδ, ends in a dental (-τ/-δ/-θ). As we know, when a sigma follows a dental, the dental disappears and the sigma remains: e.g., δ + σ = σ. The second stem, νυκτ, ends in –κτ, a stem ending that the Greeks treated as essentially the same as a palatal (-κ/-γ/-χ). Recall that when a sigma follows a palatal, the result is the double consonant ξ: e.g., κ + σ = ξ. With these sound changes in mind, note how ἐλπιδ and νυκτ decline: + ἡ ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος hope Case Singular Plural Nominative (ἐλπιδς →) ἐλπίς ἐλπίδες Genitive ἐλπίδος ἐλπίδων Dative ἐλπίδι (ἐλπιδσι →) ἐλπίσι Accusative ἐλπίδα ἐλπίδας + ἡ νύξ, νυκτός night Case Singular Plural Nominative (νυκτς → νυκς →) νύξ νύκτες Genitive νυκτός νυκτῶν Dative νυκτί (νυκτσι → νυκσι →) νυξί Accusative νύκτα νύκτας The Definite Article Most nouns have only one grammatical gender, such as: ἡ ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος hope A handful of nouns referring to people or gods, however, can be either MASCULINE or FEMININE, depending on the gender of the person/divinity. In such instances, the vocabulary entry includes both the masculine and feminine article. ὁ, ἡ παῖς, παιδός (male or female) child ὁ, ἡ δαίμων, δαίμονος (male or female) divinity Neuter Nouns All the nouns we have so far discussed have been either masculine or feminine in gender and have used the same endings to indicate number and case. The third and final grammatical gender, NEUTER, has similar endings, though with a few changes. Neuter nouns of the THIRD DECLENSION add the following case endings to their stem to indicate number and case. Note that there is no ending (!) added in the NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. Case Singular Plural Nominative – –α Genitive –ος –ων Dative –ι –σι Accusative – –α Word-Final Sounds One of the most common stem endings for NEUTER nouns of the THIRD DECLENSION is –ματ. For example: σωματ body ὀνοματ name Since τ is a dental, the addition of a sigma to the stem (dat. plu. –σι) results in a sigma: τ + σ = σ. Interestingly, it is a general rule that, unlike English, only a limited number of SOUNDS may END A WORD OF GREEK ORIGIN: a vowel sound, or the consonants –ρ/-ν/-ς (ξ, ψ). If a Greek word ended in any other consonant, that consonant would be dropped. (The only exceptions to this rule are ἐκ and οὐκ!). Since the neuter adds no ending to the nominative and accusative singular, stems ending in –ματ drop the final –τ, in order to avoid having a word end in this letter. As a result, our two nouns decline as follows: + τὸ σῶμα, σώματος body Case Singular Plural Nominative (σωματ →) σῶμα σώματα Genitive σώματος σωμάτων Dative σώματι (σώματσι →) σώμασι Accusative (σωματ →) σῶμα σώματα + τὸ ὄνομα, ὀνόματος name Case Singular Plural Nominative (ὀνοματ →) ὄνομα ὀνόματα Genitive ὀνόματος ὀνομάτων Dative ὀνόματι (ὀνοματσι →) ὀνόμασι Accusative (ὀνοματ →) ὄνομα ὀνόματα The Definite Article Remember that when a definite article accompanies a noun, both must parse the same. In other words, they must be the same in gender, number, and case. Note the following examples: + τὸ σῶμα, σώματος body Case Singular Plural Nominative τὸ σῶμα τὰ σώματα Genitive τοῦ σώματος τῶν σωμάτων Dative τῷ σώματι τοῖς σώμασι Accusative τὸ σῶμα τὰ σώματα + τὸ ὄνομα, ὀνόματος name Case Singular Plural Nominative τὸ ὄνομα τὰ ὀνόματα Genitive τοῦ ὀνόματος τῶν ὀνομάτων Dative τῷ ὀνόματι τοῖς ὀνόμασι Accusative τὸ ὄνομα τὰ ὀνόματα The Neuter Laws Three rules apply to ALL NEUTER nouns in Greek, regardless of declension. 1. The NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR must be IDENTICAL. This pattern applies to both the neuter noun and its definite article. 2. The NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE PLURAL also must be IDENTICAL, and end in a short –α. This pattern applies to both the neuter noun and its definite article. 3. Whenever any NEUTER noun is the subject of a verb, the verb is regularly 3rd PERSON SINGULAR, even if the neuter subject is plural! The reason seems to be that neuter plurals were originally conceived to be collective nouns, much as the words army and team are collective nouns in English. τὸ φῶς δείκνυσι…. The light shows… τὰ φῶτα δείκνυσι…. The lights show… More 3rd Declension Nouns We have already learned how to form 3rd Declension nouns. Most of the nouns that we introduced in these lessons have stems ending in –ν (δαιμον-), –δ (ἐλπιδ-), –ντ (ἀρχοντ-) or –κτ (νυκτ-). In other words, these stems end in a NASAL, DENTAL, or PALATAL. In this lesson, we introduce 3rd Declension nouns that have stems ending in –ρ, and –εσ. Before we look at these new nouns, let us review the 3rd Declension case endings for MASCULINE and FEMININE nouns: Case Singular Plural Nominative –ς –ες Genitive –ος –ων Dative –ι –σι Accusative –α –ας The 3rd Declension case endings for NEUTER nouns are as follows: Case Singular Plural Nominative – –α Genitive –ος –ων Dative –ι –σι Accusative – –α Stems Ending in –ρ Declining most 3rd Declension nouns whose stem ends in –ρ is fairly straightforward. Greek often avoids the combination –ρσ-, usually by dropping the –ς from the NOMINATIVE SINGULAR (μάρτυς –υρος is an exception to this rule). In the DATIVE PLURAL, the –σι ending is always intact. What happens when the –ρ– encounters the –σι can vary. Many nouns simply allow the full –ρσι– combination. For example, the dative plural of ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος “orator,” is ῥήτορσι. There are, however, exceptions to this pattern. μάρτυς –υρος drops the ρ for most Greek authors: μάρτυσι χείρ, χειρός shortens its stem: χερσί Note the inflections of the following common nouns, each with their own slight peculiarities: + μάρτυς -υρος ὁ, ἡ witness Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ μάρτυς αἱ μάρτυρες Genitive τῆς μάρτυρος τῶν μαρτύρων Dative τῇ μάρτυρι ταῖς μάρτυσι Accusative τὴν μάρτυρα τὰς μάρτυρας + χείρ, χειρός ἡ hand Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ χείρ αἱ χεῖρες Genitive τῆς χειρός τῶν χειρῶν Dative τῇ χειρί ταῖς χερσί Accusative τὴν χεῖρα τὰς χεῖρας + πῦρ, πυρός τό fire Case Singular (No plural) Nominative τὸ πῦρ Genitive τοῦ πυρός Dative τῷ πυρί Accusative τὸ πῦρ Stems Ending in –ερ More stem and accent changes occur in noun stems ending in –ερ. The good news is that the basic case endings do not change. The stem changes, however, do require memorization. There are four common nouns of this type. As you memorize the inflections for each, note the following patterns for the first three nouns: The vowel stem –ερ becomes –ηρ in the nominative singular, due to the loss of a sigma resulting in COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING. The vowel stem –ερ becomes simply –ρ in the genitive singular, and dative singular and plural. The accent is on the ultima in the genitive and dative singular, on the penult in the accusative singular and all forms of the plural. The insertion of an –α– between the ρ– and –σι in the dative plural. + πατήρ, πατρός ὁ father (stem: πατερ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative ὁ πατήρ οἱ πατέρες Genitive τοῦ πατρός τῶν πατέρων Dative τῷ πατρί τοῖς πατράσι Accusative τὸν πατέρα τοὺς πατέρας + μήτηρ, μητρός ἡ mother (stem: μητερ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ μήτηρ αἱ μητέρες Genitive τῆς μητρός τῶν μητέρων Dative τῇ μητρί ταῖς μητράσι Accusative τὴν μητέρα τὰς μητέρας + θυγάτηρ, θυγατρός ἡ daughter (stem: θυγατερ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ θυγάτηρ αἱ θυγατέρες Genitive τῆς θυγατρός τῶν θυγατέρων Dative τῇ θυγατρί ταῖς θυγατράσι Accusative τὴν θυγατέρα τὰς θυγατέρας For the fourth noun, note the following patterns: The vowel stem –ερ becomes –ηρ in the nominative singular, due to the loss of a sigma resulting in COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING. The vowel stem –ερ became simply –ρ in all oblique cases! The resulting forms (e.g. ἀνρός, ἀνρί) gradually developed a sound change that inserted a δ between ν and ρ. (Likewise, the French word cendre, “ash,” comes from the Latin cinerem!) The accent pattern matches the other three –ερ nouns, with the exception of the genitive plural ending: ἀνδρῶν. + ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man (stem: ἀνερ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative ὁ ἀνήρ οἱ ἄνδρες Genitive τοῦ ἀνδρός τῶν ἀνδρῶν Dative τῷ ἀνδρί τοῖς ἀνδράσι Accusative τὸν ἄνδρα τοὺς ἄνδρας Stems Ending in –εσ As we saw in our discussion of the ATTIC FUTURE, an INTERVOCALIC SIGMA – i.e., a –σ– found between two vowels – often drops out, and the surrounding vowels contract. This process often occurs in 3rd Declension noun stems ending in –εσ once personal endings are added. Nouns of this type are usually NEUTER. Masculine and feminine nouns of this type do appear, but they are less frequent or are proper names. 1. Proper names in –εσ The name Socrates, ὁ Σωκράτης, declines as follows. Note the following patterns: In the nominative singular, the loss of a sigma results in COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING, just as we see with the four –ρ stem nouns above. Regular and expected contractions occur in the oblique forms once the intervocalic sigma is dropped. Finally, in the accusative singular, a ν is added by many, though not all, authors. Case Form Nominative (Σωκράτεσς →) Σωκράτης Genitive (Σωκράτεσος → Σωκράτεος →) Σωκράτους Dative (Σωκράτεσι →) Σωκράτει Accusative (Σωκράτεσα → Σωκράτεα →) Σωκράτη(ν) 2. Neuter nouns in –εσ For neuter nouns, recognizable patterns emerge. First, in the nominative and accusative singular, the stem –ες becomes –ος. Otherwise, all accent and contraction rules apply normally. Second, the accent is usually born on the ANTEPENULT of the uncontracted, inflected forms. For example: + ἔτος -ους τό year (stem: ἐτεσ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative (ἔτες →) ἔτος (ἔτεσα → ἔτεα →) ἔτη Genitive (ἔτεσος → ἔτεος →) ἔτους (ἐτέσων → ἐτέων →) ἐτῶν Dative (ἔτεσι →) ἔτει (ἔτεσσι → ) ἔτεσι Accusative (ἔτες →) ἔτος (ἔτεσα → ἔτεα →) ἔτη + γένος -ους τό clan, generation; type, class (stem: γένεσ-) Case Singular Plural Nominative (γένες →) γένος (γένεσα → γένεα →) γένη Genitive (γένεσος → γένεος →) γένους (γενέσων → γενέων →) γενῶν Dative (γένεσι →) γένει (γένεσσι → ) γένεσι Accusative (γένες →) γένος (γένεσα → γένεα →) γένη Stems Ending in –ι Most nouns preserve this stem vowel only in the NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. In the other cases and numbers, –ε replaces –ι as the stem vowel. This class of nouns shares a number of other attributes, including: These nouns are usually feminine. The genitive singular ending lengthens from –ος to –ως. Neither the –εως ending of the genitive singular nor the –εων ending of the genitive plural draw the accent off of an antepenult. The accusative singular uses –ν (familiar from the definite article) instead of –α. The nominative and accusative plural both end in –εες, which contracts to –εις. As with nouns with –ερ stems, these changes in the noun stem and accent patterns require memorization. The good news is that all the –ι stem nouns in the vocabulary share the inflection pattern of ἡ πόλις, πόλεως city: Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ πόλις αἱ πόλεις Genitive τῆς πόλεως τῶν πόλεων Dative τῇ πόλει ταῖς πόλεσι Accusative τὴν πόλιν τὰς πόλεις The fact that the –εως and –εων endings do not draw the accent off of an antepenult is striking. This peculiarity is the result of changes in the pronunciation of words like πόλις. The earlier form of πόλεως was πόληος. The η and ο switched their vowel lengths over time (η shortened to ε, and ο lengthened to ω!), in a process called TRANSFERENCE OF QUANTITY. The accent, however, stayed on the antepenult during this process. The accent of the genitive plural gradually switched to the antepenult to match the genitive singular accent. Transference of quantity is similar to METATHESIS, in which a vowel and consonant can switch places. English pronunciation has a number of such switches. For example, a vowel can switch places with an “r” in actual pronunciation for many English speakers: iron is often pronounced iern, and prescription pronounced perscription. Stems Ending in –υ, –ευ, –αυ, and –ου 1. As with –ι stem nouns, –υ stem nouns preserve the stem vowel only in the NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. In the other cases and numbers, –ε replaces –υ as the stem vowel. Many –υ stem nouns share a number of other attributes with –ι stem nouns, including: The genitive singular ending lengthens from –ος to –ως. Neither the –εως ending of the genitive singular (due to transference of quantity) nor the –εων ending of the genitive plural draw the accent off of an antepenult. The accusative singular uses –ν instead of –α. The nominative and accusative plural both end in –εες, which contracts to –εις. Note, for example, the inflection of ὁ πρέσβυς -εως old man: Case Singular Plural Nominative ὁ πρέσβυς οἱ πρέσβεις Genitive τοῦ πρέσβεως τῶν πρέσβεων Dative τῷ πρέσβει τοῖς πρέσβεσι Accusative τὸν πρέσβυν τοὺς πρέσβεις 2. Kings, Priests, and Horsemen! Noun stems ending in –ευ exhibit more irregularities than stems that end in just –υ. The inflection patterns of these nouns must be memorized, though some observations may help. Note the following changes that occur in the inflection of ὁ βασιλεύς -έως “king”: The noun stem –ευ drops the –υ before another vowel, leaving just an –ε for its stem vowel. The genitive singular ending lengthens from –ος to –ως, due to transference of quantity. The accent persists on the stem vowel, –ευ or –ε. Note that for the dative singular, the original form was βασιλέ–ι, the noun stem plus the case ending. These two vowels form a diphthong, and the resulting accent, as expected, forms a circumflex. The nominative plural lengthens the –ε to an –η (-έὲς = –ῆς). The endings for the accusative singular and plural do not contract (the α of both endings is long). Not long after the Classical period, the NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE PLURALS of these –ευ nouns change to –εῖς, in parallel with the endings shared by –ι stem nouns and –υ stem nouns such as ὁ πρέσβυς –εως. The rest of the noun inflects as it did in the Classical period. + βασιλεύς -έως ὁ king (post-Classical forms in parentheses) Case Singular Plural Nominative ὁ βασιλεύς οἱ βασιλῆς (βασιλεῖς) Genitive τοῦ βασιλέως τῶν βασιλέων Dative τῷ βασιλεῖ τοῖς βασιλεῦσι Accusative τὸν βασιλέα τοὺς βασιλέας (βασιλεῖς) Also inflected on this pattern are the following two nouns: ἱερεύς -έως ὁ priest ἱππεύς -έως ὁ horseman, charioteer 3. Ships! The noun ἡ ναῦς, νεώς “ship” is a common word in Greek, as might be expected for a people closely associated with seafaring. The stem for this noun ends in –αυ. Like noun stems ending in –ευ, –αυ nouns exhibit more irregularities than stems that end in just –υ. The inflection pattern of ἡ ναῦς, νεώς must be memorized, though some observations may help. The vowel stem –αυ drops the –υ before another vowel, resulting in a vowel stem of either –ε or –η. The genitive singular ending lengthens from –ος to –ως, due to transference of quantity. The accent pattern follows that of a monosyllabic nouns of the 3rd Declension. The accusative singular uses –ν instead of –α. The nominative singular and accusative plural are identical in form. + ναῦς, νεώς ἡ ship Case Singular Plural Nominative ἡ ναῦς αἱ νῆες Genitive τῆς νεώς τῶν νεῶν Dative τῇ νηί ταῖς ναυσί Accusative τὴν ναῦν τὰς ναῦς 4. Bulls! The noun βοῦς, βοός bull or cow, is also a common word in Greek. These animals were important not only for farming and animal husbandry, but for sacrifices. The stem for this noun ends in –ου. Like noun stems ending in –ευ and –αυ, –ου nouns exhibit irregularities. The inflection pattern of βοῦς, βοός must be memorized, though some observations may help. The vowel stem –ου drops the –υ before another vowel, resulting in a vowel stem of –ο. The genitive singular remains –ος. No transference of quantity can occur, since the stem vowel –ο is short. The accent pattern follows that of a monosyllabic nouns of the 3rd Declension. The genitive singular and nominative plural endings do not contract. The accusative singular uses –ν instead of –α. The nominative singular and accusative plural are identical in form. + βοῦς, βοός ὁ bull, ox; ἡ cow Case Singular Plural Nominative ὁ, ἡ βοῦς οἱ, αἱ βόες Genitive τοῦ, τῆς βοός τῶν, τῶν βοῶν Dative τῷ, τῇ βοί τοῖς, ταῖς βουσί Accusative τὸν, τὴν βοῦν τοὺς, τὰς βοῦς Kings, ships, cows, and the digamma Early Greek used three additional letters: KOPPA (ϙ), a K sound later retained as the numeral 90; SAMPI (ϡ), a double-S sound retained as 900; and DIGAMMA (ϝ), representing W. Digamma disappeared from most dialects by the Classical period, affecting words with stems ending in –ευ, –αυ, and –ου. For example, βασιλέως, βασιλεῖ, and βασιλέα derive from earlier βασιλήϝος, βασιλήϝι, and βασιλήϝα. Similarly, νεώς and βοός derive from νηϝός and βοϝός. The loss of digamma and shifts in vowel quantity produced the later forms. Compare Latin navis and bovis, which preserve W as V. Latin also retained koppa, which gave rise to the English letter Q. Vocabulary Masculine Nouns ὁ ἀλέκτωρ, ἀλέκτορος: rooster ὁ αἰών, αἰῶνος: age, era, eternity ὁ ἀλιεύς, ἀλιέως: fisherman ὁ ἀμπελών, ἀμπελῶνος: vineyard ὁ ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός: man, husband ὁ ἀρχιερεύς, ἀρχιερέως: high priest ὁ ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος: ruler, leader ὁ ἀστήρ, ἀστέρος: star ὁ βασιλεύς, βασιλέως: king ὁ γονεύς, γονέως: parent ὁ γραμματεύς, γραμματέως: scribe, legal expert ὁ δράκων, δράκοντος: dragon ὁ ἡγεμών, ἡγεμόνος: ruler, governor ὁ ἱερεύς, ἱερέως: priest ὁ ἰχθύς, ἰχθύος: fish ὁ κῆρυξ, κήρυκος: herald, proclaimer ὁ κύων, κυνός: dog ὁ λέων, λέοντος: lion ὁ μάρτυς, μάρτυρος: witness ὁ μήν, μηνός: month ὁ Μωϋσῆς, Μωϋσέως: Moses ὁ ὀδούς, ὀδόντος: tooth ὁ ὄφις, ὄφεως: snake, serpent ὁ πατήρ, πατρός: father ὁ ποιμήν, ποιμένος: shepherd ὁ πούς, ποδός: foot ὁ σωτήρ, σωτῆρος: savior ὁ Σίμων, Σίμωνος: Simon ὁ χαλκεύς, χαλκέως: metalworker ὁ θώραξ, θώρακος: breastplate Feminine Nouns ἡ ἄνεσις, ἀνέσεως: relief, rest ἡ ἀνάλημψις, ἀναλήμψεως: taking up, ascension ἡ ἀνάστασις, ἀναστάσεως: resurrection ἡ ἀντίθεσις, ἀντιθέσεως: opposition ἡ ἀντίλημψις, ἀντιλήμψεως: help, assistance ἡ ἀπόκρισις, ἀποκρίσεως: answer, reply ἡ ἀποκάλυψις, ἀποκαλύψεως: revelation ἡ ἄφεσις, ἀφέσεως: release, forgiveness ἡ ἀσπίς, ἀσπίδος: asp, venomous snake ἡ αἴσθησις, αἰσθήσεως: perception, discernment ἡ βρῶσις, βρώσεως: eating, food ἡ γένεσις, γενέσεως: origin, birth ἡ γνῶσις, γνώσεως: knowledge ἡ γυνή, γυναικός: woman, wife ἡ δύναμις, δυνάμεως: power, mighty deed ἡ εἰκών, εἰκόνος: image ἡ ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος: hope ἡ ἐπίγνωσις, ἐπιγνώσεως: knowledge, recognition ἡ ἔκστασις, ἐκστάσεως: astonishment, trance ἡ ἔνδειξις, ἐνδείξεως: proof, indication ἡ ἕξις, ἕξεως: habit, practice ἡ ἔρις, ἔριδος: strife, quarrel ἡ ἐπίθεσις, ἐπιθέσεως: laying on, imposition ἡ θλῖψις, θλίψεως: affliction, trouble ἡ θυγάτηρ, θυγατρός: daughter ἡ θρίξ, τριχός: hair ἡ ἰσχύς, ἰσχύος: strength ἡ κρίσις, κρίσεως: judgment ἡ κλεῖς, κλειδός: key ἡ κλῆσις, κλήσεως: calling ἡ κτίσις, κτίσεως: creation, created thing ἡ μάστιξ, μάστιγος: whip, scourge ἡ μετάθεσις, μεταθέσεως: transfer, change ἡ μήτηρ, μητρός: mother ἡ νύξ, νυκτός: night ἡ παράκλησις, παρακλήσεως: appeal, encouragement, consolation ἡ παράδοσις, παραδόσεως: tradition, handing down ἡ πίστις, πίστεως: faith, trust ἡ πόλις, πόλεως: city ἡ πτέρυξ, πτέρυγος: wing ἡ σάλπιγξ, σάλπιγγος: trumpet ἡ σάρξ, σαρκός: flesh ἡ συνείδησις, συνειδήσεως: conscience ἡ σύνεσις, συνέσεως: understanding ἡ ὑπόστασις, ὑποστάσεως: being, reality, assurance ἡ φανέρωσις, φανερώσεως: manifestation ἡ φλόξ, φλογός: flame ἡ χείρ, χειρός: hand ἡ χάρις, χάριτος: grace, favor, thanks ἡ χιλιάς, χιλιάδος: thousand ἡ ὄψις, ὄψεως: appearance, sight ἡ φρήν, φρενός: mind; usually found in the plural Neuter Nouns τὸ ἅλας, ἅλατος: salt τὸ αἷμα, αἵματος: blood τὸ ἄνθος, ἄνθους: flower τὸ ἀνάθεμα, ἀναθέματος: anathema, something accursed τὸ βάθος, βάθους: depth τὸ βάπτισμα, βαπτίσματος: baptism τὸ βῆμα, βήματος: platform, judgment seat τὸ βρέφος, βρέφους: infant τὸ γάλα, γάλακτος: milk τὸ γένος, γένους: kind, race, family τὸ γόνυ, γόνατος: knee τὸ γράμμα, γράμματος: letter, writing τὸ δόγμα, δόγματος: decree, ordinance τὸ ἔθνος, ἔθνους: nation, people τὸ ἔθος, ἔθους: custom, practice τὸ ἔλεος, ἐλέους: mercy τὸ ἔτος, ἔτους: year τὸ θέλημα, θελήματος: will, desire τὸ κέρας, κέρατος: horn τὸ κέρδος, κέρδους: gain, profit τὸ κλάσμα, κλάσματος: fragment, broken piece τὸ κλίμα, κλίματος: region, district τὸ κράτος, κράτους: might, power τὸ κρέας, κρέως: meat, flesh τὸ κρίμα, κρίματος: judgment, verdict τὸ καύχημα, καυχήματος: boast, reason for boasting τὸ κήρυγμα, κηρύγματος: proclamation, preaching τὸ μέγεθος, μεγέθους: greatness, magnitude τὸ μέλι, μέλιτος: honey τὸ μέλος, μέλους: member, limb τὸ μέρος, μέρους: part, portion τὸ μῆκος, μήκους: length τὸ ὄνομα, ὀνόματος: name τὸ ὄνειδος, ὀνείδους: reproach, disgrace τὸ ὄρος, ὄρους: mountain τὸ οὖς, ὠτός: ear τὸ ὄφελος, ὀφέλους: benefit, use τὸ πάθος, πάθους: passion, suffering τὸ πένθος, πένθους: mourning, grief τὸ πέλαγος, πελάγους: sea, open water τὸ πλάτος, πλάτους: breadth, width τὸ πνεῦμα, πνεύματος: spirit, breath τὸ πλῆθος, πλήθους: multitude, crowd τὸ πλεόνασμα, πλεονάσματος: surplus, abundance τὸ πρᾶγμα, πράγματος: deed, thing, matter τὸ πρόσκομμα, προσκόμματος: stumbling block, offense τὸ πῦρ, πυρός: fire τὸ πλήρωμα, πληρώματος: fullness τὸ ῥῆμα, ῥήματος: word, saying τὸ σκεῦος, σκεύους: vessel, possession τὸ σκότος, σκότους: darkness τὸ σπέρμα, σπέρματος: seed, offspring τὸ στόμα, στόματος: mouth τὸ σῶμα, σώματος: body τὸ στίγμα, στίγματος: mark τὸ τέλος, τέλους: end, goal τὸ τέρας, τέρατος: wonder, sign τὸ φρέαρ, φρέατος: well τὸ φῶς, φωτός: light τὸ ὕδωρ, ὕδατος: water τὸ ὕψος, ὕψους: height τὸ χάραγμα, χαράγματος: mark, imprint τὸ χάσμα, χάσματος: chasm, great divide τὸ χρῖσμα, χρίσματος: anointing τὸ ψεῦδος, ψεύδους: falsehood, lie