Professionalism/Using Animals in Research

The use of animals in research is a widely controversial topic in today's scientific community. This topic raises an important professional issue - is it ethical to harm animals with the aim of saving human lives? The scope of this page is limited to cases and laws in the United States, though the professionalism is applicable everywhere. Animal Research Definition Animal research is the use of living animals for research purposes that would be considered unethical to perform on humans first. Approximately 115 million animals are used annually around the world.Humane Society International. (n.d.) "About Animal Testing" http://www.hsi.org/campaigns/end_animal_testing/qa/about.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/ It typically involves the study of behavior, diseases, and safety of chemicals, cancer research, and psychological studies. Toxicity Studies Toxicity studies, which test the effects of toxins and poisons on organisms, are commonly used for drug, food, and pharmaceutical development.Parasuraman, S. (2011). Toxicological screening. Journal of Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics, 2(2), 74–79. http://doi.org/10.4103/0976-500X.81895 The use of animals in these studies began in 1920 with the introduction of the LD50 test. The LD50 test is used to determine the single dose needed to kill 50% of the animals used in the research experiment.Shanks, N., Greek, R., & Greek, J. (2009). Are animal models predictive for humans? Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : PEHM, 4, 2. http://doi.org/10.1186/1747-5341-4-2 Original animal-use involved testing eye and skin irritation in rabbits. Methods now include testing pharmaceuticals and carcinogenic chemicals via rats and mice. Common forms of testing include injection, skin application, and airway insertion. Cancer Studies Animals are used to understand the growth and spread of tumors, develop new ways of diagnosis, and testing the efficacy of proposed treatments.The Institute of Cancer Research. (n.d.). "Animal Research at the ICR" http://www.icr.ac.uk/our-research/about-our-research/animal-research/animal-research-at-the-icr Research begins with either selecting animals with naturally occurring cancer, growing tumors from birth via genetic engineering or implanting cells in an animal’s specific organ. The efficacy of new cancer treatments are determined based on its ability to shrink the tumor or slow its growth.  Testing in General The number of animals needed for testing ranges depending on the type of study. For example, evaluation of potential carcinogenic substances may require around 800 animals in total, while behavioral studies may require 80.Nuffield Council of Bioethics. (n.d.). "Animal Use in Toxicity Studies" https://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/Animals-Chapter-9-Animal-Use-in-Toxicity-Studies.pdf Of all animals, rats and mice are most commonly used. Other animals considered include: rabbits, guinea pigs dogs, and primates. The selection of animals depends on the cost, experimental time constraints, and assumptions on whether the reactions are representative of the human population. In most cases, all animals used are euthanized after the research is completed.UC Irvine. (2013). "Euthanasia of Research Animals" http://research.uci.edu/compliance/animalcare-use/research-policies-and-guidance/euthanasia.html Laws and Regulations on Animal Research and Treatment Most animal regulations are handled by executive agencies, state and local laws, or by scientific institutions. Animal Welfare Act of 1966 Current regulations on animal research are primarily found in the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), which is a federal law that regulates the treatment of animals in research, exhibition, transport, and trading. Congress enacted AWA in 1966 and it serves as the minimum acceptable standard for animal care. While it claims to protect “millions of animals nationwide each year”, it excludes certain warm-blooded species such as rats, birds, mice, and livestock. More inclusive protection policies may be found in other policies or guidelines outside the authority of the US Department of Agriculture. The law is an illustrative example of a lack in professional integrity in animal treatment regulations, most notably for its exemption of rats, mice, birds, and livestock.Animal Welfare Act. https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/animal-welfare-act. Section 2132 g. There is no justification on the grounds of emotional or cognitive complexity for these animals to be exempted when other animals of similar stature, such as dogs and cats, are not exempt. A justification could be made on the grounds of cost or convenience, but convenience is not a primary consideration in the execution of professional standards and ethics. The Public Health Service Policy on Human Care and Use of Laboratory Animals The Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (PHS Policy) provides principles on vertebrate animal care in testing and research.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). "Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals" https://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspolicylabanimals.pdf It includes the protection of more species than AWA. PHS requires that the institution doing research follows the Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals as well as AWA’s regulations.National Association for Biomedical Research. (2015). "THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICY OVERSIGHT"http://www.nabr.org/biomedical-research/oversight/the-public-health-service-policy/ However, it is limited in that it is not a federal law and applies only to research funded by the PHS. More so, it is structured as a self-policing policy.  Successful Research Outcomes in Animal Testing Polio Polio, a crippling and infectious disease infecting the brain and spinal cord, is almost nonexistent in the world today due to the vaccine.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). "What is Polio?" https://www.cdc.gov/polio/about/  Many people, especially children, were falling victim to the disease throughout the 1900s. Medical professionals had speculations of what it could be/how it was transmitted, but had no evidence. It wasn't until 1908 when two doctors extracted a strand of polio from the spinal cord of a boy who died from polio and replicated it into monkeys.Understanding Animal Research. (2014). "Polio Vaccine" http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/why/human-health/polio-vaccine They found that it was transmitted from monkey to monkey proving that polio is an infectious disease caused by a virus. The discovered model of transmission led to years of testing in mice and monkeys. While there is no cure for polio, the prior years of testing and discovery led to the eventual development of a vaccine as an effective means of prevention.The History of Vaccines.(2017). "History of Polio ( Poliomyelitis )" https://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/history-polio-poliomyelitis Breast Cancer In the early 1980s, researchers discovered a protein called HER2 that caused tumors in rats. They were able to create an antibody to target the protein. Later, medical researchers discovered the same tumor-inducing protein in women with breast cancer. High levels of HER2 indicate that the cancer is more likely to spread and less likely to respond to treatment.National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). "A Story of Discovery: HER2’s Genetic Link to Breast Cancer Spurs Development of New Treatments"https://www.cancer.gov/research/progress/discovery/HER2 In 1992, researchers developed Herceptin, an antibody, as a treatment therapy. After initial testing on monkeys, it was approved to use for non-pregnant women by the FDA in 1998.Animal Research Info. (n.d.). "Breast Cancer" http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/diseases-research/breast-cancer/ Researchers continue to test the efficacy of it for women in breast cancer.UC Los Angeles. (2008). "Animal research generates new treatments, benefits society" http://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/animal-generates-new-treatments-45057 Currently, Herceptin claims to have helped change women’s prognosis of breast cancers, ranging from stage 1 to 3, from poor to good. Animal Research on Non-Human Primates Valuing humans and monkeys in terms of dollars is frequently done. Insurance companies often use $50,000 when preparing a quote for a consumer.Kingsbury, K. (2008). "The value of a human life: $129,000." In Time Health. http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1808049,00.html Government agencies use higher values when considering the costs and savings of regulations, but this may be because the costs are absorbed by the businesses and industries affected, not by the organizations themselves.Appelbaum, B. (2011). "As U.S. agencies put more value on a life, businesses fret." In The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/business/economy/17regulation.html?pagewanted=all. As of 2012, the FDA values a human life at $7.9 million, while the EPA estimates its worth at $9.1 million. On the other hand, monkeys are worth much less. Rhesus macaques may be purchased online for $2,000 to $5,000.Wild Animal World. http://wildanimalworld.com/gpage.htmlPrimatestore.com. http://www.primatestore.com/forsale.asp Valuing humans and animals is necessary economically, but the ethics are not so easy. Isolation Experiments on Rhesus Monkeys In the late 1950s, Harry Harlow performed psychological experiments on rhesus monkeys. To learn about infant-mother ties, he separated infant rhesus monkeys and placed them with surrogate mothers. These surrogates were either made of a bare wire mesh or covered in terry cloth. He found that those with a choice preferred the cloth-covered mother, which provided emotional attachments to the infants.Herman, E. (2012). "Harry F. Harlow, Monkey Love Experiments." The Adoption History Project. http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adoption/studies/HarlowMLE.htm While the monkeys grew the same physically, their psychological development greatly differed. The monkeys preferred the cloth-covered surrogates far more than the wire frame alternatives.Herman, E. (2012). "Harry F. Harlow, 'Love in Infant Monkeys,' 1959." The Adoption History Project. http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adoption/archive/HarlowLIM.htm Furthermore, those with the cloth surrogates were much more adaptable to frightening objects, quickly returning to their playful state. Contrastingly, the monkeys raised by the wire-frame surrogates often screamed in terror, showing their lack of psychological development. Later, in the 1960s, he isolated baby monkeys in an attempt to find out more about depression. Calling the isolation chambers the "Pit of Despair," Harlow's monkeys often went into emotional shock later in their lives. Many of these monkeys that went on to have offspring were negligent or abusive mothers.Battuello, P. (2011). "Harry Harlow’s Pit of Despair." In Behalf of Animals. http://inbehalfofanimals.com/2011/05/30/harry-harlows-pit-of-despair/ These experiments showed that babies look to their mothers for both basic needs and affection.Schultheis, E. (1999). Harry F. Harlow. http://muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/harlow.htm Those without the necessary contact developed serious psychological problems. While these conditions could be reversed initially, after a certain period, nothing could fix the emotional damage. Moreover, one of his students described his experiments as clearly insensible, and another attributed his experiments to the origins of the modern animal liberation movement. Thus, Harlow's experiment is generally regarded as unethical. Despite this, Harlow remained unsympathetic and unapologetic, stating that the unethical treatment of a few monkeys is irrelevant when considering the potential benefits to humans.Hansen, S. (2002). “Love at Goon Park” by Deborah Blum. http://www.salon.com/2002/11/13/blum/ While it is clear that this experiment was unethical, it still provided useful results in developmental psychology. In considering cases such as this, there is no clear, right answer. Whether the benefits of this research is worth the suffering of some monkeys is ultimately up to people to decide for themselves. Polio Research on Rhesus Monkeys and Vaccine thumb|right|150px|Jonas Salk at the University of Pittsburgh where he developed the first polio vaccine.When Thomas Francis, Jr. announced the success of Jonas Salk's polio vaccine on April 12, 1955, the world rejoiced. Often cited as one of the worst postwar fears in America,O'Neill, W. (1989). American high: The years of confidence, 1945-1960. New York: Simon and Schuster.(2009, Feb. 2). "American Experience: The Polio Crusade." In Los Angeles Times. Television Review polio afflicted countless victims including Donald Sutherland, Mia Farrow, J. Robert Oppenheimer, and possibly Franklin D. Roosevelt. Discovering, testing, and curing polio involved monkeys at every step. In 1908 Landsteiner and Popper isolated the polio virus by injecting rhesus monkeys with spinal cord tissue from human patients.IAAPEA. "Monkey experiments delay polio breakthrough." http://www.iaapea.com/101_page.php?id=87 At least one monkey became paralyzed in both legs. Later, three different types of polio strains were discovered after exhaustive testing on 17,000 monkeys.Spice, B. (2005). "Developing a medical milestone: The Salk polio vaccine." In Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/05093/481117.stm Researchers infected monkeys which had immunity to a known type of polio with tissue samples of an unknown type to determine the unknown strain. Tested monkeys that became infected were killed. Once Jonas Salk discovered the inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), he needed to grow large amounts of the virus. Growing polio in a cell culture used monkey kidney cell cultures.National Research Council. (1988). Use of laboratory animals in biomedical and behavioral research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, p. 28. Finally, vaccines were tested by injecting them into monkeys, and again any infected monkeys were killed.Spice, B. (2005). "Tireless polio research effort bears fruit and indignation." In Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/05094/482468.stm When the use of monkeys saves as many lives and prevents as much paralysis as Salk's vaccine did, the ethics become unclear. Are the lives of tens of thousands of monkeys worth less than the lives of millions of people? If so, where do we draw the line? The International Association Against Painful Experiments on Animals (IAAPEA) believes that using monkeys gave a misrepresentation of the polio virus in humans and led to huge delays in formulating a vaccine. Albert Sabin, who discovered the oral polio vaccine (OPV), argues that animal research was necessary. “My own experience of more than 60 years in biomedical research amply demonstrated that without the use of animals and of human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans but also among animals.”Blue Sky Science. (2011). "Albert Sabin and the monkeys who gave summer back to the children." http://speakingofresearch.com/2011/02/01/the-monkeys-who-gave-summer-back-to-the-children/ Modern AIDS Research on Non-Human Primates One area that remains particularly contentious in both the scientific community and the realm of public opinion is the use of non-human primates (NHP) in AIDS research. Roughly 6 million people were infected with AIDS in 2007 and that number is projected to increase to 10 million by 2030 without further intervention.Tonks, A. (2007). The quest for the AIDS Vaccine. BMJ, 334(7608), 1346-8. Because the similarities of NHPs to humans both in anatomy and physiology, some groups contend that in specific cases, using NHPs is the only conceivable method for exploring possible vaccines and therapeutic treatments. For instance, the California Biomedical Research Association describes the use of NHPs as “an indispensable, and currently irreplaceable, bridge between basic laboratory studies and clinical use.”California Biomedical Research Association. (n.d.) Fact sheet: Primates in biomedical research. Retrieved from http://ca-biomed.org/pdf/media-kit/fact-sheets/FS-Primate.pdf Others however, like the Humane Society of the United States and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), have pointed out the dissimilarities between NHPs and humans in the progression of HIV/AIDS and Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV).Humane Society of the United States.(2009)."Questions and Answers About Monkeys used in Research" http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/monkeys/qa/questions_answers.html PETA.(n.d.). "AIDS: Contagion and Confusion." http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/aids-contagion-and-confusion.aspx For instance, chimpanzees infected with HIV-1 are unlikely to develop AIDS. Nath, B.M., Schumann, K.E., & Boyer, J. D.(2000). The chimpanzee and other non-human-primate models in HIV-1 vaccine research. Trends in microbiology. 8(9), 426-431. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X00018163 Because of the financial cost of maintaining chimpanzees and the increasing pressure from activists, researchers often substitute rhesus macaques for chimpanzees. Rhesus macaques can only be infected with SIV or SHIV, a chimeric HIV & SIV recombinant strain. Such differences between animal models and humans have been highlighted by the failures of many potential vaccines first tested in animal models. For instance, the AIDSVAX vaccine was effective in chimpanzees, but proved ineffective in a Stage III clinical trial involving 8,000 patients in 2003. Bailey, J. (2005). Non-human primates in medical research and drug development: a critical review. Biogenic Amines, 19(4-6), 235-255. Retrieved from http://www.safermedicines.org/pdfs/reportbiogenic.pdf Several advances in the treatment of AIDS/HIV have relied on testing with non-human primates. Notably, tenofovir (PMPA) demonstrated high effectiveness in treating SIV in macaques.Van Rompay, K. K. A. (2010). Evaluation of antiretrovirals in animal models of HIV infection. Antiviral research, 85(1), 159-75. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.07.008http://www.thebody.com/content/art17228.html Zidovudine (AZT) also used macaques for testing.AVERT.(2011). "HIV Drugs Vaccines and Animal Testing." http://www.avert.org/hiv-animal-testing.htm#ref2 Additionally, researchers laud NHP models for contributing to a greater understanding of toxicology, prophylaxis, and drug resistant HIV mutant strains. A vaccine recently developed for SIV in macaques has demonstrated efficacy rates of at least 80% in preventing infection.Barouch, D. et al. (2012). Vaccine protection against acquisition of neutralization-resistant SIV challenges in rhesus monkeys. Nature DOI: 10.1038/nature10766 Researchers contend that generalizing such findings to humans will ultimately result in successful vaccines and therapies. The issue of NHP for AIDS research is increasingly an issue in the public domain. Researchers cite concerns about public outcry as one of the principle reasons for discontinuing the use of chimpanzees in AIDS research. In 2005, AIDS patient groups formed the Patient Advocates Against PETA in response to PETA's rigid position on the use of animals in research. However, not all HIV positive patients agreed with this group's stance and have asserted their own concerns about the use of animals in drug and vaccine development. Animal Intelligence A justification for why humans deserve higher moral consideration than animals is our uniquely complex cognitive capabilities. Throughout modern scientific research, more and more cognitive and behavioral traits previously thought to be only exhibited by humans have been found in animals. An argument can therefore be made for giving animals moral consideration in accordance with their mental and emotional complexity. To judge this, one must be aware of the current scientific understanding of animal intelligence. Because the brown rat is the most commonly used animal in research, and is exempt from protections in the Animal WelfareAnimal Welfare Act. https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/animal-welfare-act. Section 2132 g., the most relevant animal to discuss for contemporary animal research is the brown rat. Metacognition in Rats Metacognition is the act of thinking about one's own thinking. It is a form of higher level thinking as it requires more complex mental effort than simple reaction to stimulus. A 2007 study called "Metacognition in the rat" suggested that rats are capable of metacognition. The researchers tested the subject rats' cognitive abilities by giving them a sound length discrimination test with an option to decline to take the test. The rats were played a sound, which would be classified as a long sound or a short sound. If the rats guessed correctly (by climbing through a tube they learned were associated with a certain length sound) they received a food reward, with no reward given for an incorrect guess. The researchers added a third tunnel, which would guarantee a food reward smaller than a correct guess. Showing an ability to judge their certainty of the correct answer, the rats reliably chose the third tunnel if the sounds were not clearly distinguishable.Foote, Allison and Crystal, Jonathon. (2007). "Metacognition in the rat." Curr Biol, 17(6), 551-555. Altruism in Rats Altruism is the act of doing something to the benefit of another without the expectation of any reciprocal benefit in return. It is not rare in animals, but is still arguably notable in mammals. In a study with rats, researchers taught rats how to open barriers. They then presented the subject rats with two barriers, one trapping the subject's cagemate and another holding chocolate chips. The finding was that rats would consistently free their cagemate before eating the chocolate chips, and share the chocolate in slightly over half of the trials.Bartal et al. (2011). "Helping a cagemate in need: empathy and pro-social behavior in rats." Science, 334(6061), 1427-1430. Limited Applicability to humans Toxicity Test After producing a new drug, the scientists need to make sure the drug is effective and safe for human use. Multiple species are required for a toxicity test. Limitations to humans are obvious. Some of the drugs that showed high levels of bioavailability in dogs N.Shanks,R.Greek, J.Greek, (2009), Are animal models predictive for humans, Philos Ethics Humanit Med, 04-02, doi: 10.1186/1747-5341-4-2 had very low levels in humans and vice-versa. Meanwhile, some chemicals like MPTP are extremely harmful to humans but neutral to rodents.G.Siegel, B.Agranoff, R.Albers, S.Fisher and M.Uhler, (1999), Basic Neurochemistry, 6th edition, Basic Neurochemistry, 0-397-51820-X Second, only around 5% of drugs that show potential in animal studies ever get licensed for human use.Waters, H. (2011, March 8). Q&A: Improving preclinical trials, The Scientist. http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/29581/title/Q-A--Improving-preclinical-trials/ Third, since chemical reactions are different for humans and animals, some potential effective medicines could be missed at this stage. Parkinson’s Disease Rodents are often used to study Parkinson’s Disease. In the each trial, certain body functions of the rodents is disabled or blocked so that the symptom can be shown in the motor behavior test. Although the neuroanatomical components underlying motor control may be similar for humans and rodents, the manifestation of these motor deficits may be expressed differently between species. J. A. Potashkin, S. R. Blume and N. K. Runkle. (2011), "Limitations of Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease." Parkinson’s Disease, 658083, pp.4. Besides, the cause of the behavior failures cannot be determined for sure. The rodents need to learn most of the complex tasks so that scientists does not know if the failure to perform a task is from a motor deficit or from a learning deficit. At last, Parkinson’s Disease is slow and progressive. Since rodents have different reaction time to certain disabled body function from the humans, the symptom will also come out differently. Rights: Humans vs. Animals One main argument surrounding animal testing is on the basis of whether or not animals have rights. A right is "an entitlement considered to arise through natural justice and which is applicable to all members of a particular group.""Right," Definition 9a. Oxford English Dictionary. http://www.oed.com/view/entry/165853 Equal Rights Especially as the line between humans and animals blur, in criteria such as tool usage or language, the ethics of using animals in research is becoming more and more questionable.Bowd, A. (February 1980). "Ethics and Animal Experimentation." American Psychologist, 224-225. As animals can be in pain and distress, humans should include them in their moral circle and recognize their need to reduce pain. Regardless of host, pain is pain, whether is come from a toxicity test or a physical trap.Ryder, R. (2005). "All beings that feel pain deserve human rights." The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/aug/06/animalwelfare Moreover, giving only humans rights is a form of "species-ism." If we care about the suffering of other humans, we should also care about the suffering of non-humans. Furthermore, there are some animals that exhibit more brain function than some humans (e.g., infants, etc.). Just because humans are stronger than the animals does not give them free reign; with that logic, a stronger species could and enslave humans with no moral uncertainties. In place of animal testing, they may suggest these alternatives. Unequal Rights Animals are not equal to humans. Only humans can have rights, as rights also include duties to uphold these rights. However, the lack of rights does not equate to a lack of morality in treatment. This does not mean that humans are free to do what they want to animals - humans still may have obligations to animals, but that does not mean that the animals have rights. It is absurd to suggest that humans and animals would both have either no rights or the same rights.Cohen, C. (1986). "The Case for the Use of Animals in Biomedical Research." New England Journal of Medicine, 315(14), 865-870. Furthermore, because humans can act morally, often sacrificing the self for the greater concern of others, and animals cannot, humans should put human interests before those of animals.Wilson, S. (2010). "Animals and Ethics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/ Many also argue that the benefits of animal testing do not outweigh its negative consequences. However, by summing the benefits over time, the results produced via animal testing (e.g., elimination of disease, lives saved, etc.) are so large that it would be unethical to not utilize animal testing. While researchers recognize the effects on the animals, they also see the importance of the research results. International Perspectives on Animal Research International perspectives on animal research are important as they help to inform regulatory policies and guidelines. The cultural differences cause to having different laws and regulations. In the US, China, Europe, animal research is widely accepted while in India, different cultural and religious attitude towards animals lead to some groups’ opposition. United States The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) governs the use of animals in research in the United States. The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) was passed in 1966 with the aim of ensuring the proper care and treatment of animals used in testing, teaching, and research. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) must conduct routine inspections of animal facilities in accordance with the AWA, which establishes requirements for the housing, food, and medical care of research animals.Pippin J 2010 The Animal Welfare Act at Fifty https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2010.525123 All warm-blooded animals are protected by the AWA, with the exception of rats, mice, and birds bred specifically for research. The act also requires that organizations that employ animals in research set up institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) to monitor the use of animals in research and make sure that requirements for animal welfare are followed. Europe Regulation 2010/63/EU is the current regulatory framework governing animal research in Europe. This law, which became effective in 2013, aims to advance science while defending the rights of animals.European Parliament & Council 2010 Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:276:0033:0079:EN:PDF The rule sets a common framework for the protection of animals used for scientific purposes throughout the member states of the European Union (EU) and mandates the implementation of the Three Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) in all animal research.European Commission 2016 Animal welfare: EU rules for animal welfare in research. https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/strategy/support-policy-animal-welfare_en Refinement refers to lessening any pain, suffering, or distress that animals may go through while engaging in research, while replacement refers to employing non-animal alternatives in place of animals. Reduction refers to using the fewest number of animals possible. China In China, the laws include requirements for handling and utilizing laboratory animals, as well as recommendations for housing, medical treatment, and animal welfare. Additionally, in accordance with the regulations, researchers must obtain approval from an animal ethics committee before conducting animal experiments. Despite these laws, there are concerns about the welfare of animals used in research in China. Only 50% of published research articles reported compliance with animal welfare regulations in China, according to a study published in the journal Alternatives to Laboratory Animals.Cheng Y 2019 Compliance with animal welfare regulations in China: Current status and future prospects. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 47 1 1-9 The study emphasizes the necessity of stricter implementation of China's animal welfare laws to guarantee the treatment of animals employed in research. India The regulations set out requirements for the care and use of laboratory animals, including provisions for animal welfare, housing, and veterinary care. However, there have been concerns about the enforcement of animal welfare regulations in India. In a study published in the journal Alternatives to Laboratory Animals, researchers found that there has been a lack of enforcement action against violations of animal welfare regulations in India.Kumar S 2019 Animal welfare in India: Past, present, and future Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 47 1 10-17 The study highlights the need for increased enforcement of animal welfare regulations in India to ensure that animals used in research are treated humanely. Public Perception of Animal Research The way the public views animal research is a significant aspect that may have an impact on its future. The public as a whole agrees that using animals for research is only appropriate if it is required and the animals are treated properly. According to a 2018 Pew Research Center survey, 47% of US citizens agree that using animals for research is morally acceptable, while 52% think it is unethical.Graham-Harrison, Boseley E., S. 2018 Majority of Americans think medical research using animals is wrong https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/aug/16/majority-of-americans-think-medical-research-using-animals-is-wrong The Guardian The use of animals in cosmetics testing is opposed by only 14% of adults in the UK, according to a 2017. 2018 New survey shows improved attitudes towards animal research https://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/communications-media/new-survey-shows-improved-attitudes-towards-animal-research/ Understanding Animal Research In contrast, 65% of adults in the UK support the use of animals in medical research. Media Coverage One factor that can influence how the general public feels about animal experimentation is media coverage. Media coverage of animal cruelty and neglect in research settings is widespread, which can be detrimental to the public's perception of the field as a whole. Additionally, animal advocacy groups like PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) frequently use graphic images and videos to educate the public about animal testing. Additionally, this could result in negative opinions. However, by highlighting the benefits of animal research and the ways in which it has advanced medical knowledge, the media may also offer positive coverage. The Lack of Understanding The lack of knowledge regarding the ethical and scientific basis for employing animals in research is one of the primary causes of the bad public opinion of animal research. Only 15% of UK adults believe they know a lot about animal research, while 52% believe they know nothing or very little).2014 Public attitudes to animal research https://www.britishscienceassociation.org/public-attitudes-to-animal-research British Science Association. This finding comes from a poll done by the British Science Association. Misconceptions about the use of animals in research, such as the idea that they are used pointlessly or are exposed to cruel and inhumane treatment, might result from a lack of information. Collaboration between Researchers and Animal Advocates Collaboration between academics and animal rights activists is becoming more acknowledged as a fruitful strategy for enhancing both the welfare of animals and the caliber of animal research. The Animal Research Nexus in the UK and the Animals in Science Policy Institute in the US are a few of recent efforts that aim to foster cooperation between animal activists and researchers.Swaney P 2016 Title: The animal research nexus: a new approach to collaboration in animal research ethics Science and engineering ethics 22 2 463-481 Collaboration can result in the creation of more moral and efficient methods for using animals in research, as well as more openness and public confidence in scientists. Working together, researchers and animal advocates can find topics of interest and encourage discussion about problems relating to the welfare and use of animals in research. The creation of animal ethics committees (AECs) at research institutes is an illustration of how researchers and animal activists can work together successfully. AECs are in charge of examining proposals for animal research to make sure they are morally sound and adhere to animal welfare laws. They are made up of researchers, animal welfare specialists, and animal advocates.Ormandy E. H. 2013 Worldwide trends in the use of animals in research: the contribution of genetically modified animal models Alternatives to laboratory animals: ATLA 41 6 327-338 It has been demonstrated that having animal advocates serve on AECs results in better ethical and open methods for using animals in research, as well as more public confidence in the methodology. It is crucial to remember that cooperation between scientists and animal rights activists shouldn't be seen as a one-size-fits-all strategy and that each research institution's particular needs and circumstances should be carefully taken into account. Despite the advantages of cooperation between scientists and animal rights activists, there are always issues that need to be resolved. The cultural gap between the two groups, which can cause miscommunication and hurdles to communication, is one of the main challenges. While animal activists may think that researchers are oblivious to animal welfare issues, researchers may think that animal advocates are anti-science and hostile to all animal research.Akhtar A 2015 The flaws and human harms of animal experimentation Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 24 4 407-419 It should be emphasized that researchers and animal advocates should appreciate and understand one another in order to overcome this obstacle. This can be accomplished by educational and training initiatives aimed at raising researcher understanding of concerns relating to animal welfare, as well as initiatives that assist animal advocates in comprehending the nature of science and the value of animal research in promoting both human and animal health. Animal Welfare in Research Animals are used in scientific research and testing. Although there have been some developments that have resulted in a reduction in the use of animals for specific purposes, the overall number of animals used for research has increased in recent years. Mice, fish, and rats are frequently used in research due to their ease of maintenance and similarity to humans in biological processes. Other species, such as monkeys, cats, dogs, horses, and pigs are also used for research purposes. Animal research refers to the ethical and humane treatment of animals used for scientific experimentation. It ensures that animals are treated humanly and with respect. This can include the following: Giving animals appropriate care, housing, and handling. Minimizing pain, suffering, and distress Providing adequate food, water, and shelter. Receiving veterinary care when necessary and be monitored regularly. The impact of animal research varies widely, ranging from minimal effects on certain animals to significant impacts on others that undergo painful or distressing procedures. Animal welfare can also be compromised if their living conditions and care do not meed their needs. Unintended harm can occur in some cases during the research processes, such as pain from an injection or surgery intended to place a sensor for monitoring biological functions. Animal research may involve deliberate harm, such as inducing series diseases or injuries for the purpose of testing treatments. Case Studies of Animal Research Genetically Engineered Mouse Models in Cancer Research The use of mouse models has been essential in advancing knowledge of tumorigenesis and in addressing experimental questions that cannot be addressed by other systems. There have been significant advances in mouse models that allow for a better understanding of the mechanism of tumor development, leading to the identification of better therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. Although there are differences between mice and humans, new models can more accurately model sporadic human cancers by controlling the timing and location of mutations, even within single cells. Engineered mice provide a tractable and accurate test of hypotheses developed in human and cell culture systems. These models have led to significant advancements in our understanding of cancer initiation, the role of the immune system, tumor angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis, and the relevance of molecular diversity observed among human cancers. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3533445/ Alternatives to Animal Research Biomedical research employs a variety of strategies, models, methods, and technologies, with the choice of approach dependent on the specific research question. The use of different approaches is determined by the requirements of each research question. Animal models are utilized in various fields of biomedical research, although not all approaches involve the use of animals. The National Institute of Health (NIH) recommends researchers use complementary methods to ensure rigorous and replicable studies whenever possible.When Are Alternatives to Animals Used in Research? grants.nih.gov https://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/air/alternatives 2023-05-09 grants.nih.gov The NIH supports the efforts to replace, reduce, and refine (also referred to as the "3Rs") the use of animal models in their supported studies. Examples of this include: Testing cells and tissues in test tubes or cell cultures 3D tissue culture (organ-on-a-chip) Computational and mathematical models Stem cell research Non-invase diagnostic imaging Clinical research involving humans Before approving drugs and chemicals for human use, scientists usually examine their effects on animals. When possible, however, toxicology testing is performed using biomedical or cell-based systems (in vitro) instead of animal models, such as mice. For example, researchers have devised in vitro methods for identifying strong eye irritants and substances that might cause allergic contact dermatitis. In certain circumstances, computer programs equipped with sophisticated systems using extensive chemical databases can forecast the toxicity of a chemical, reducing the need for animal testing.Alternatives to Animal Testing https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/sya-iccvam/index.cfm 2023-05-09 National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences en The idea of replacing, reducing, or refining replacing, reducing, or refining animal use in research and testing is commonly known as the 3Rs: Replacing: A test technique that substitutes traditional animal models with non-animal models, such as computer models or biochemical or cell-based systems, or replaces a more developed animal species with a less developed on (for example, replacing a mouse with a worm). Reducing: A test method that decreases the amount of animals required for testing to a minimum, while still achieving testing objectives. Refining: A test technique that eliminates pain or distress in animals, or promotes animal well-being. Methods that use the 3Rs are referred to as new alternative methods. The Future of Animal Research Likely to see a continued shift towards more ethical and humane treatment of animals. However, some scientists and organizations argue that animal research is necessary for biomedical progress and should be continued to be used as a vital tool in understanding human health and diseases. They believe that alternatives to animal research, such as in-vitro and computer modeling, aren't advanced enough yet to replace animal testing as a whole. Advocates for a reduction in animal research point out that animal studies can be expensive, time-consuming, and may not always translate effectively to human outcomes. Regardless, there is a growing focus on improving animal welfare in research and reducing the number the animals used whenever possible. The use of the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) in animal research is also promoted. As technological innovation advances, it's possible that the future of animal research will gradually see less use of animals, and improve animal welfare. Deontological Ethics ("Duty-Based") vs. Consequentialism ("Outcome-Based" Ethics) For a person that subscribes to deontological ethics, an action cannot necessarily be justified by its consequences. For a deontologist, the moral conformity of an action outweighs the possible good that an action's consequence can impart.http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/ In contrast, a consequentialist assesses an act based solely on its outcome or consequences. In this light, the good that an action creates can always outweigh the rightness or morality of the action and legitimize harmful behavior as long as the final outcome is beneficial. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Conclusion Not all ethical discussions are black and white. Professionalism involves knowing your own ethics perspective, especially when there is no easy answer. Animal research particularly illuminates inadequacies in codified ethics systems, that can often be unresponsive, vague, or self-contradictory. It also involves the inherent recognition that you hold power over others and that you always have a choice in how you use this power. Particularly, when determining when and if "the ends justify the means." The merits for using animals in research varies case by case, and it is essential that professionals consider their own motivations for performing the research as well as the ratio of animal suffering to long-term benefits for humans. Furthermore, the changes in what's acceptable animal research provides a localized example of how professional standards change with society and new evidence. As new research on the effects of professionals' choices and actions, either on animals or humans, professional standards must change to fit the most accurate and current evidence. See Also Human subjects in clinical research Valuing of human life in risk analysis References 30emWelfare of Animals Used in Scientific Testing and Research https://www.ufaw.org.uk/why-ufaws-work-is-important/welfare-of-animals-used-in-scientific-testing-and-research 2023-05-08 www.ufaw.org.uk english