Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power in single-parent families

Single parents are a vulnerable group that exist at the intersection of three main issues affecting their wellbeing and that of their children: socioeconomic resources, psychology, and education. By considering individual disciplines, we discuss how power dynamics within and between Education, Economics and Psychology influence them. Background It seems obvious that single parent families have existed for all of human history, whether due to separation, widowing, or parents simply being single. However, they were not studied until relatively recently: some of the earliest work began around 1920-30 (and this was neither unbiased nor rigorous)McClure WE. Intelligence of Unmarried Mothers, II. The Psychological Clinic 1931Oct;20(5):154–7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5138330/?page=4. and until around the 1970s, the subject was not widely studied. It may be argued that, as single parents are overwhelmingly women, the delay was because this gendered social issue did not garner interest from academics until more women were academics. Possibly for this reason, relatively little research exists on single parent families. Power inequalities remain a factor within the study of single parents. Firstly, a large majority of existing studies on single parent families were done in the “Global North”, specifically the U.S. Although some academics in recent years have attempted to compare single parenthood between different countries,Wong YI, Garfinkel I, McLanahan S. Single-Mother Families in Eight Countries: Economic Status and Social Policy. Social Service Review 1993;67(2):177–97. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30012196. more research is nonetheless necessary to understand the transferability of most studies. In a similar vein, race is also being studied as a dimension of single parenthood: findings indicate single parenthood may be viewed differently in different racial subcultures,Gabriel A, McAnarney ER. Parenthood in Two Subcultures: White, Middle-Class Couples and Black, Low-Income Adolescents in Rochester, New York. Adolescence 1983Fall;18(71):595. Available from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-06435-001. although children's educational outcomes are dependent on parental relationships and involvement rather than race.Gutman LM, Eccles JS. Financial Strain, Parenting Behaviors, and Adolescents' Achievement: Testing Model Equivalence between African American and European American Single- and Two-Parent Families. Child Development 1999;70(6):1464-76. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1132318. Finally, an unusual dynamic surrounds gender as a factor in single parenthood: most single parents are women, so single fathers are often studied separately, and with different results.Hanson SMH. Single Fathers with Custody: A Synthesis of the Literature. In Schlesinger B. The One-Parent Family in the 1980s: Perspectives and Annotated Bibliography 1978–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1985;57–96. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctvfrxcb0.7. Education Power in Education is the fundamental precondition for political development, democracy and social justice.Schaeffer U. Knowledge is power: why education matters [internet]. 2012 [cited 2019 December 7th]. Available from: https://www.dw.com/en/knowledge-is-power-why-education-matters/a-15880356. Education is crucial to children's futures; however, children in single-parent households experience “a greater risk of dropping out of school, of leaving home early, of poorer health, of low skills and low pay.”Adamson P. Unicef's Child Wellbeing in Rich Countries [internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 December 1st]. Available from: https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/683-child-well-being-in-rich-countries-a-comparative-overview.html. In the ‘Global North’, governments allocate funds to education for single-parent families. In the ‘Global South’, such funds don’t exist, though education is especially vital in single-parent families in the ‘Global South’ for three reasons. Firstly, “young single mothers are even less likely to have a good education or job experience, which relegates them to low paying jobs within the range of jobs available to women in general.”Dowd NE. In Defense of Single-Parent Families. NYU Press 1997. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qfs4m. With lower income, mothers are less able to invest either time or money into their children's education. Secondly, “schools with more children from single-parent families deal with less effective teaching and learning time.”Pong S. Family structure, school context, and eighth-grade math and reading achievement. Journal of Marriage and Family 1997Aug;59(3):734-46. doi: 10.2307/353957. In the ‘Global South’, schools are few and single-parent families numerous, culminating in an even greater disruption in children’s education.van Ewijk R, Sleegers P. The effect of peer socioeconomic status on student achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review 2010;5(2):134-50. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.02.001. Finally, “children might be ashamed of the fact that their parents are no longer together.[…] These emotional problems are expected to reduce children’s concentration at school and impair their educational performance.”de Lange M, Dronkers J. The triple bind of single-parent families. Bristol University Press 2011. Available from: https://oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file=https://oapen.org/document/645375. Without quality education, children have lower social mobility, and the same issues propagate to the next generation. However, when considering the well-being of the children of single parents, if research focuses only a lack of education, it fails to consider the influence of social policy and economic security. Some studies argue that the decreased educational advantage of single parents has little effect on their disadvantage in seeking employment, or the education of their children.Härkönen J, Bernardi F, Boertien D, Eur J. Family Dynamics and Child Outcomes: An Overview of Research and Open Questions. Population 2017;33(2):163-84. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-017-9424-6. In the midst of such disagreement, it is not enough to consider these factors in isolation; researchers must also consider their interaction. Economics Power in Economics is the ability of an individual to improve their standard of living. It is more simply defined as the freedom one has to make decisions that benefit them, and the inability of (or inertia towards) external factors reducing that freedom.Ozanne A. Power and Neoclassical Economics: A Return to Political Economy in the Teaching of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan 2016. An important indicator of economic power is purchasing power and, therefore, employment.Amadeo K. Economic Power, Who Has It, How to Get It [internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 December 8]. Available from: https://www.thebalance.com/the-power-of-the-u-s-economy-3306226. Single parenthood is increasingly common among lower socioeconomic groups possessing fewer socioeconomic resources, including education; this is called the 'Diverging Destinies Thesis'Mclanahan S. Diverging Destinies: How Children Are Faring Under the Second Demographic Transition. 2004 and is important when discussing their wellbeing. In several countries, high rates of single parents use employment to support themselves. However, employment is less lucrative for single-parents, for many reasons. One of these is gendered inequality: single parenthood is highly skewed towards women,Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD Family Database [internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 December 8]. Available from: http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm. and moreover gender inequality in employment has the harshest consequences for them. Their reduced likelihood of finding employment in the first place compounds with the gender wage gap, pay penalties for part-time work, and inconsistent work schedules. For women of colour, these issues are further compounded by racial biases in the labour market,Kennelly I. ‘That Single-Mother Element’: How White Employers Typify Black Women. Gender and Society 1999;13(2):168-92. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/190387. and age (since single mothers are often young). Women are also much likelier than men to exit employment entirely as a result of parenthood.Nieuwenhuis R, Need A, Van Der Kolk H. Institutional and Demographic Explanations of Women's Employment in 18 OECD Countries, 1975–1999. Journal of Marriage and Family 2012;74:614-30. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00965. Evidently, single-parent households are influenced greatly by a lack of economic power (which is itself heavily impacted by power in gender). Thus, families already short on socioeconomic resources lack the financial freedom to escape their cycle. Psychology In Psychology, there are several types of power. Most significant in single-parent households is “covert negative power, which is based on passive-aggression and is manifested in behaviours indicating weakness, incompetence, and self-destructive tendencies that manipulate others in the interpersonal world by arousing their feelings of fear, guilt, and anger.”Firestone R. Personal Power [internet]. Psychology Today April 2009 [cited 2019 December 7]. Available from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-human-experience/200904/personal-power. This phenomenon involves a refusal to accept power over one's life, and can affect the mental health of family members. This and other psychological factors are often detrimental in single-parent households. Figures show that children from single-parent families are twice as likely to suffer from mental health problems as those living with married parents.Batty D. Single-parent families double likelihood of child mental illness [Internet]. the Guardian 2019 [cited 7 December 2019]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2006/feb/21/mentalhealth.childrensservices The figures, from the ONS annual report on UK social trends, showed one-fifth of those living with a divorced, separated or widowed parent suffered from at least one disorder. In contrast, only 8% of boys living with married parents suffered from mental disorders. And for parents, studies have reported as high as a threefold risk of depression and substance use in single mothers compared to married mothers.Behere AP, Basnet P, Campbell P. Effects of Family Structure on Mental Health of Children: A Preliminary Study. Indian J Psychol Med 2017;39(4):457–63. doi:10.4103/0253-7176.211767. Therefore, single parenthood becomes a clear risk factor for mental health problems for both children and adults, further increasing parents' psychological distress and difficulties,Cherlin AJ, Furstenberg FF, Jr, Chase-Lansdale L, Kiernan KE, Robins PK, Morrison DR, et al. Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on children in Great Britain and the United States. Science 1991;252:1386–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2047851. which contribute to a vicious cycle by putting parents at a socioeconomic disadvantage. Psychological factors often go unaddressed by public policy, possibly because psychology is seen as "soft" science. Overall, power evidently has a significant role in single-parent families, both in their own mental health, and in how they are treated. Conclusion The disciplines explored above clearly show that single-parent households are disadvantaged in many ways. Parents have greater economic and psychological hardship, leading to their children having difficulties in school and mental health, and ultimately having worse outcomes. While some research has explored how these factors interact,LS Beeber, Perreira KM, Schwartz T. Supporting the mental health of mothers raising children in poverty: how do we target them for intervention studies?. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2008;1136:86-100. doi:10.1196/annals.1425.008. there is not enough to come to a clear answer as to how best to support these families. Public policy illustrates well which disciplines are actually given weight, and it clearly reflects that socioeconomic status and education drive single-parent social policy, with psychology rarely mentioned.Cancian M, Meyer DR. Reforming Policy for Single-Parent Families to Reduce Child Poverty. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 2018;4(2):91-112. doi:10.7758/rsf.2018.4.2.05. Moving forward, researchers (and politicians) must consider single-parent families from every angle, weighing each discipline, to truly maximize outcomes. References