Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel

Introduction The Lucius J. Kellam Jr. Bridge-Tunnel, commonly known as the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel (CBBT) is a combination of bridges and tunnels that connect the larger Hampton Roads area to the Delmarva Peninsula, spanning a total of 17.6 miles.Hampton Roads bridges and tunnels Virginia Department of Transportation https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/about/our-system/bridges-tunnels/hr-bridges-tunnels/#:~:text=Chesapeake%20Bay%20Bridge-Tunnel,%20Route,call%20757-331-2960. 2025-03-01 www.vdot.virginia.gov There are 12 miles of bridge and 5.5 miles of tunnels, making it the longest bridge-tunnel system in the world until 2018. Four man-made islands were created to support construction and operation. The tunnels were included in its design to support ease of access to ports for ships, crucial for the surrounding coastal economy. Opened in 1964, the CBBT replaced the ferry service that had been in operation since the 1930s. A project to dualize the bridge was completed in 1999, and efforts to dualize one of the tunnels began in 2017. The CBBT is one of only 14 bridge-tunnel systems in the world and one of three located in the Hampton Roads region. It carries US Route 13, allowing drivers to save approximately 95 miles and 1.5 hours compared to alternative routes. As of 2021, over 140 million vehicles have crossed the CBBT. It is operated by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel District, a political subdivision of Virginia, and is financed through toll revenue and bonds. This unique infrastructure has been recognized with multiple awards, such as being recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) as one of the “Seven Engineering Wonders of the Modern World,” shortly after being built, and the “Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement.”Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel opens Civil Engineering Source https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/civil-engineering-source/article/2021/04/12/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel-opens 2025-03-01 www.asce.org en-US History The idea for a fixed crossing over the Chesapeake Bay dates back to the early 20th century, when transportation between Virginia’s Eastern Shore and the mainland was largely dependent on ferry services. By the 1930s, the inefficiency of these services led to discussions about constructing a bridge or tunnel system.History of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel KOA https://koa.com/campgrounds/chesapeake-bay/blog/discover-the-history-of-the-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel_37ba2c49-e64e-4672-84f4-f401071979ef/?utm 2025-03-01 koa.com en In 1954, the Chesapeake Bay Ferry Commission (now the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission) was established by Virginia to take over the private ferry services offered by the Virginia Ferry Corporation. In 1956, the State of Virginia authorized the Commission to explore the construction of a permanent fixture for crossing the Chesapeake Bay. In 1963, more ferries were purchased and put into use.Ferry History: Setting the Stage https://www.cmlf.com/ferry-history-setting-stage 2025-03-03 Cape May-Lewes Ferry en In 1964, the Bridge-Tunnel would open, and ferry operations would cease.The Future of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20250205100222/https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf 2025-02-05 2025-03-03 Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission thumb|306x306px|CBBT It was in 1954 that the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel District was established, and its purpose was to to oversee planning, financing, and construction. The project was unique in that it was entirely funded by revenue bonds, avoiding the use of taxpayer money; they expected, correctly, that toll fees would eventually pay enough revenue to repay all investors and turn a profit. In 1960, after extensive feasibility studies, construction officially began. The CBBT was completed and opened to the public on April 15, 1964. It was recognized in 1965 as one of the Seven Engineering Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). The original structure featured a combination of bridges, tunnels, trestles, and artificial islands, making it a pioneering achievement in infrastructure design. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel has been the subject of two major improvement projects. In 1999, the Parallel Crossing Project was completed, increasing the number of lanes each way on the bridge from one to two, and broadening the width from being hazardously narrowHolst Arthur M. Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/?utm 2025-03-01 Encyclopedia Virginia en-US. The Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project, which would add a tunnel, doubling tunnel lanes and improving safety,Tunnel Project – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/tunnel-project/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com was initially expected to finish in 2022,2025-03-03 Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/parallel-thimble-shoal-tunnel-project live https://web.archive.org/web/20240614100856/https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/parallel-thimble-shoal-tunnel-project 2024-06-14 2025-03-03 United States Department of Transportation but is now projected to conclude in 2027.Jackson Stefanie 2022-08-18 New tunnel will be five years late https://easternshorepost.com/2022/08/18/new-tunnel-will-be-five-years-late/ 2025-03-03 Eastern Shore Post en-US Significant Figure Biographies Lucius J. Kellam, Jr., namesake of the Lucius J. Kellam, Jr. Bridge-Tunnel, was born in 1911. Before serving in civil office, he served as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy during World War II. After WWII, among other ventures, he created Kellam Energy, Inc. to sell and distribute petroleum products.LUCIUS JAMES KELLAM JR. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950925/09250021.htm 2025-03-03 scholar.lib.vt.edu Kellam chaired the Chesapeake Bay Ferry Commission, which would later become the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission, and pushed strongly for the bridge-tunnel project. Kellam fought against concerns that construction would be impossible, or that it would be too expensive, or not be worth the investment.Holst Arthur M. Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-03 Encyclopedia Virginia en-US Between 1954 and 1993, he remained the chairman of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission. Between 1962 and 1964, he also served as director of the International Bridge and Tunnel Society. Kellam was named chairman emeritus of the Commission in 1993, and continued to serve until his death in 1995. The official name of the CBBT is the Lucius J. Kellam, Jr. Bridge-Tunnel, changed in his honor in 1987 by other members of the Commission, for his championship of the project at every step of the wayLucius J. Kellam, Jr. Historical Marker https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=34862 2025-03-03 www.hmdb.org en. Without Kellam, the Bridge-Tunnel would not exist today. Leif J. Sverdrup, whose company, Sverdrup and Parcel, designed the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-TunnelChesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel https://group.skanska.com/projects/57419/Chesapeake-Bay-Bridge-Tunnel 2025-03-04 Skanska - Global corporate website en-US, was born in Norway in 1898. He served in the American military in WWI. Afterwards, he gained a degree in civil engineering at the University of Minnesota. He spent time working for the Missouri State Highway Department, and then left to found a civil engineering corporation, Sverdrup and Parcel. Sverdrup and Parcel specialized in bridges, and worked on several important bridges. During WWII, they developed airstrips for the delivery of bombers to the Philippines. Sverdrup then commissioned into the U.S. Army as a colonel. After his term of service ended, Sverdrup oversaw many more important projects, including the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. He died in 1976.Collection: Leif J. Sverdrup Collection Julian Edison Department of Special Collections https://aspace.wustl.edu/repositories/11/resources/535 2025-03-04 aspace.wustl.edu Design & Construction The Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel (CBBT) is often revered as an engineering marvel. Initial construction (1960–1964) featured low-level trestle bridges supported by 2,598 concrete piles and two immersed tube tunnels: the Thimble Shoal Tunnel (~1 mile) and Chesapeake Channel Tunnel (~1 mile). Four artificial islands, each 21,246m², were built to support the tunnel entrances. Engineers faced challenges such as hurricanes and strong currents, requiring innovative techniques to ensure stability.Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. https://research-ebsco-com.mutex.gmu.edu/c/tmuig6/viewer/pdf/bhygyuhodj Civil Engineering (0885-7024) 72 11/12 144 EBESCOhost thumb|Thimble Shoal Tunnel Entrance By the 1990s, rising congestion led to the Parallel Crossing Project (1995–1999), which doubled the bridge capacity by adding 12 miles of new trestles supported by 2,580 concrete piles. Environmental considerations required approvals from agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), with over 70 acres of wetlands created to offset habitat loss. The latest expansion, the Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project (2017–ongoing), replaces the immersed tube method with a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM). Initially estimated at $724.4 million, bids exceeded $1 billion. Major firms, including Bouygues TP and Dragados USA, are involved, with the U.S. Coast Guard enforcing safety zones around construction areas. In 2021, the Build America Bureau provided a loan to refinance the previous $338.6 million Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act loan that it had directly provided to the District to help support the construction, lowering the interest rate on the loan.2021-11-30 U.S. Department of Transportation Announces up to $338.6 Million TIFIA Loan for the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel – Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project U.S. Department of Transportation https://www.transportation.gov/briefing-room/us-department-transportation-announces-3386-million-tifia-loan-chesapeake-bay-bridge 2025-03-03 Completion is expected between 2027 and 2030.2016 Proposals for second tunnel for Chesapeake Bay Bridge all top $1 billion. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1799364622 Mining Engineering 68 6 1 Key takeaways from the CBBT's construction include the importance of selecting appropriate tunnel methods, accurate cost estimation, early regulatory engagement, and adapting to marine conditions. As expansion continues, the CBBT remains a model of engineering excellence, ensuring efficiency, safety, and sustainability for future generations. Issues and Legal Issues Research for the Parallel Crossing Project began in the 80s, prompted by how dangerously narrow the original bridge was, and the restoration needed by older parts. The bridge re-opened on April 19, 1999Holst Arthur M. Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-03 Encyclopedia Virginia en-US. The Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project has suffered delays, such as when the tunneling device ran into a historical anchor (and damaged the tools from accidentally cutting through metal.)Project Connect: Spring 2024 – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/news/project-connect-spring-2024/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com The bridge also can be damaged when seagoing vessels crash into the supports.LUCIUS JAMES KELLAM JR. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950928/09280001.htm 2025-03-03 scholar.lib.vt.edu Crashes on the bridge section carry with them the risk of drowning. This also applies to vehicles blown over the bridge by wind. Sometimes, corpses from fatalities are unrecoverable for months due to the water's cold temperature, leaving families in suspenseBulletin Bay 2021-04-12 Body of Truck Driver in Bay Bridge-Tunnel Crash is Found on N.C. Beach https://www.chesapeakebaymagazine.com/body-of-truck-driver-in-bay-bridge-tunnel-crash-is-found-on-n-c-beach/ 2025-03-03 Chesapeake Bay Magazine en-US. For survivors, rescues can take 50 minutes to reach them while they are increasingly suffering from cold water, injuries, and exhaustion.2023-07-20 Man who survived 2016 crash off edge of Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel tells his story https://www.13newsnow.com/article/news/local/mycity/virginia-beach/trucker-lives-to-tell-his-story-driving-off-cbbt/291-db6dda23-4c5b-44ad-81d3-94cc696648df 2025-03-03 13newsnow.com en-US The CBBT website maintains a live update on whether or not there are current wind restrictions.CBBT – Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://www.cbbt.com/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com The wind policy of the CBBT is to not allow certain sizes of vehicles to cross if the wind speed is high enough. However, it does not take into account gusts of wind, in which the wind speed increases briefly but drastically2020-01-25 Widow Sues Over NC Trucker's Death in Chesapeake Bay Plunge https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/widow-sues-over-nc-truckers-death-in-chesapeake-bay-plunge/2204051/ 2025-03-03 NBC4 Washington en-US. As a result, sometimes large vehicles such as trucks are blown over and into the bay. One such fatality caused the surviving spouse to sue in 2017Patton Wimberly 2020-12-04 Trucker’s widow cites ‘secret wind policy’ as reason behind her husband’s fatal plunge off Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://cdllife.com/2020/truckers-widow-cites-secret-wind-policy-as-reason-behind-her-husbands-fatal-plunge-off-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-03 CDLLife en-US. The CBBT failed to stop her husband from crossing the bridge, and a gust pushed his truck into the water. The driver had survived the landing, and escaped the cabAshley 2017-02-09 Semi Goes Over Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://cdllife.com/2017/semi-goes-over-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-03 CDLLife en-US, but died from complications on the way to the hospitalAshley 2017-02-09 Trucker Dies After Crash Off Of Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://cdllife.com/2017/trucker-dies-after-crash-into-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-03 CDLLife en-US. The judge dismissed her wrongful death claim under sovereign immunity; the doctrine that a public entity’s policies are exempt from liability unless inconsistently appliedKimberlin Joanne 2021-02-26 Judge dismisses $6 million lawsuit against Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in trucker’s over-the-side death https://www.pilotonline.com/2021/02/26/judge-dismisses-6-million-lawsuit-against-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel-in-truckers-over-the-side-death/ 2025-03-03 The Virginian-Pilot en-US. In July 2022, the wind restriction policy was updated to account for a lower average empty truck weight, increasing restrictions in a bid to prevent vehicles from being blown over.Wind Policy 2022 – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/news/wind-policy-2022/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com Policy & Tolls The Virginia General Assembly established the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission to oversee the infrastructure operations and enact policy. The board consists of eleven Governor appointees: one from the Commonwealth Transportation Board, and the remaining ten represent the surrounding localities.detail https://www.commonwealth.virginia.gov/va-government/boards-and-commissions/comprehensive-board-listing/detail/?id=b51e296a-b375-ed11-81ab-001dd80724a2 2025-03-02 www.commonwealth.virginia.gov Each member serves four year terms and the commission meets every other month. The mission of the CBBT commission is, “to provide the traveling public with a safe, cost effective, and unique driving experience across the scenic Chesapeake Bay.”Organization – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/organization/ 2025-03-02 www.cbbt.com Its most famous member, Lucius J. Kellam, Jr., spearheaded the Bridge-Tunnel's construction and would in 1987 become the structure's namesake.LUCIUS JAMES KELLAM JR. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950925/09250021.htm 2025-03-03 scholar.lib.vt.edu Furthermore, the General Assembly created the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel District, which has the ability to sue and be sued. It encompasses portions of Virginia Beach, Hampton, Chesapeake, Norfolk, Newport News, and Portsmouth.§ 33.2-2201. Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel District https://law.lis.virginia.gov/vacode/title33.2/chapter22/section33.2-2201/ 2025-03-02 law.lis.virginia.gov The District receives oversight from the Joint Legislative Audit & Review Commission.The Future of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20250205100222/https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf 2025-02-05 2025-03-03 Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission The CBBT utilizes tolls to fund operations, past expansions, and future projects. The original construction, funded by private investment, repaid its debts using tollsHolst Arthur M. Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/?utm 2025-03-04 Encyclopedia Virginia en-US. The toll rate schedule is approved to increase by 10% every 5 years after 2014.Toll Rate Increase 2024 – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/news/toll-rate-increase-2024/ 2025-03-02 www.cbbt.com In 2025, a typical 4-wheel car with an E-ZPass would pay $16 to cross during off-peak season and $21 during peak season, but should it cross again within 24 hours it would receive a discount on the second trip. Such a vehicle, should it cross at least 30 times within 30 days, would pay only $7 on subsequent crossings. Generally, larger vehicles pay a larger fare, except for school buses, who pay a flat rate of $1 per crossingTolls – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/tolls/#toll-calculator 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com. The tolls gain the bridge millions in profit every year,The Future of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20250205100222/https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt287.pdf 2025-02-05 2025-03-03 Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission and are lower than average for the areaRussell Charlie 2024-01-02 It now costs more to cross the Bay https://shoredailynews.com/headlines/180332/ 2025-03-04 Shore Daily News en-US. Community Impacts The Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel saves drivers 90 miles or more in comparison to alternate routes and significantly more time than boat or ferry rides. Driving across the CBBT takes roughly twenty-five minutes. This engineering marvel incredibly increased the transportation opportunities for residents, businesses, and the government. Residents in these communities now are able to easily commute across localities and the bay to reach other economic or social opportunities. Furthermore, the CBBT was built to support the significant shipping industry within the Chesapeake Bay region, including supporting access to the Virginia Port Authority. Not only does the bridge-tunnel itself provide jobs through its construction and maintenance, but it ensures the shipping industry can operate smoothly. Finally, it aids in the tourism industry as people can easily travel between the Eastern Shore and Virginia Beach, providing real value in the summer months. Tradition holds that the Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) should be given a name before beginning work. Before construction began for the Parallel Thimble Shoal Project, a vote from the public was held to name the Tunnel Boring Machine "Chessie"Project Connect: Spring 2024 – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/news/project-connect-spring-2024/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com, out of a list of names that had been proposed by local sixth-gradersadmin 2018-04-02 Naming Contest Underway Ahead of Bay Bridge Tunnel Construction https://www.chesapeakebaymagazine.com/naming-contest-underway-ahead-of-bay-bridge-tunnel-construction/ 2025-03-03 Chesapeake Bay Magazine en-US. thumb|314x314px The CBBT is not only a construction project to get from one destination to the next, but is itself a destination. This infrastructure helps create an appreciation for the body of water and connect drivers with the natural world as they drive over and below it. A “scenic passing,” is offered, which allows people to drive across the bridge, but make a U-turn before having to pay the return toll. This allows the public to sightsee the Chesapeake Bay from a different perspective than usual. Tourists and locals can pay a toll to enter the CBBT to enjoy and explore the sceneryHolst Arthur M. Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/?utm 2025-03-04 Encyclopedia Virginia en-US. The Sea Gull Fishing pier on the CBBT is a fishing spot, and local fish include bluefish, striped bass, gray trout, and tautogSea Gull Fishing Pier – Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel – www.daybreakfishing.com https://www.daybreakfishing.com/regional-information/virginia/sea-gull-fishing-pier-chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel/ 2025-03-04 en-US. The CBBT is an exciting location for birders, as many birds tend to rest or nest in areas underneath the bridge, such as northern gannets, harlequin ducks, and king eiders. Individuals or groups can schedule trips to the bridge-tunnel and be accompanied by staff to a man-made island that allows for great views.Birding Program – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/birding/ 2025-03-02 www.cbbt.com However, this tour group has a maximum of 15 people, and the group must pay $50 per hour for the privilegeBirding Program – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/birding/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com. Without scheduling a trip, passersby still may see glimpses of a variety of birds, harbor seals, whales, or even dolphins.Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel https://dwr.virginia.gov/vbwt/sites/chesapeake-bay-bridge-tunnel-es/ 2025-03-02 dwr.virginia.gov en Peregrine falcons sometimes even perch on bridge lights to watch prey on the rocks below, while all sorts of gulls congregate on the artificial islands.Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel (CBBT) https://www.beachbirding.com/locations/cbbt 2025-03-03 Beach Birding en-US Conclusion The Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel (CBBT) was constructed to replace the ferry system that had been the primary means of crossing the Chesapeake Bay for nearly 350 years. The need for a more reliable and efficient transportation route arose due to the limitations of ferry services, which often faced delays caused by heavy traffic and bad weather, which were amplified by increasing business and population. The design of the bridge-tunnel system was an innovative solution that combined both bridges and tunnels, enabling continuous traffic flow while allowing for naval access to the bay. The tunnels were necessary to allow naval vessels to pass through the bay, preserving the local shipping networks, while the bridges provide uninterrupted land-based traffic flow. This complex engineering feat was one of the first of its kind globally and continues to serve as an example of high quality modern construction. The CBBT has significantly impacted the Delmarva Peninsula and Hampton Roads regions, primarily by reducing travel time and distance for commuters and tourists. Prior to its construction, travelers had to take ferries or detour around the bay, often adding several hours to their journey. The CBBT incorporates numerous safety measures to ensure the protection of both vehicular traffic and naval access, giving locals and travelers unprecedented access to each region. Safety features include traffic control systems, emergency response protocols, and designated safe zones for stranded vehicles. There are also protocols in place for maintaining safe naval passage under the bridge. Weather-related deaths have caused controversy for the CBBT, but it has recently raised safety standards and guidelines to reduce wind casualties. Plans for the future of the CBBT include upgrades to enhance capacity, as well as maintenance to keep the bridge and tunnel system in top condition. The ongoing Parallel Thimble Shoal Tunnel Project seeks to dualize one of the tunnels as part of an ongoing effort to increase traffic flow, reduce traffic, ensure the system meets future demand, and improve safety by ensuring that each tunnel will only carry one direction of traffic. The CBBT remains a crucial part of regional transportation, handling significant volumes of traffic, cutting down surrounding traffic, and allowing 4 million vehiclesExplore – CBBT https://www.cbbt.com/explore/ 2025-03-03 www.cbbt.com to travel across Chesapeake Bay each year. Discussion Questions Should the CBBT continue to rely on tolls? The original CBBT did not rely on taxpayer funds for construction. Would you have opted for this path? Do you agree with the use of sovereign immunity re: the deaths on the CBBT? Why or why not? How could the CBBT improve its connections to the community and locals, and/or better serve them? Acknowledgement This casebook is a case study on the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel by Sumaia Anwaryan, Chloe LaGattuta, Eglal Salih, and Olivia Nealon, created as part of Infrastructure Past, Present and Future: GOVT 490 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) and CEIE 499 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) at George Mason University. This project is under the instruction of Professor Jonathan Gifford at the Schar School of Policy and Government and the Volgenau School of Engineering’s Sid and Reva Dewberry Department of Civil, Environmental, and Infrastructure Engineering. References