Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Outdoor Industries/Dairying

2 1929 Outdoor Industries General Conference 1. Know 25 parts of a dairy cow. 1. Muzzle 2. Poll 3. Forehead 4. Horn (or horn bud in young ones / poll in dehorned) 5. Eye 6. Ear 7. Neck 8. Dewlap 9. Withers 10. Back 11. Loin 12. Rump 13. Tail head 14. Tail switch 15. Shoulder 16. Brisket 17. Barrel (body/flank area) 18. Hip (hook bone) 19. Pin bone 20. Thigh 21. Stifle 22. Hock 23. Udder 24. Teats 25. Hoof 2. What considerations are made when selecting a calf? The best approach is a holistic one, by taking a close look at the genetics of the calf and the environment. Both of these factors have an effect on the final phenotype. Maternal and paternal characteristics are important as well as the heritability of these traits. When selecting a calf don't always select on appearance. Know what the calf is going to be used for before selection. Characteristics differ between dairy and beef calves. 3. Know the care, management, and feeding of dairy cows during their following stages a. Calves 🐄 Care of Dairy Calves 1. At Birth Ensure calf is breathing (clear mucus, rub with clean towel). Dip the navel cord in iodine to prevent infections. Provide a clean, dry, and warm place immediately after birth. 2. Health Monitoring Vaccinate according to the herd health plan. Deworm regularly. Observe for signs of diarrhea, pneumonia, or naval ill. 3. Housing Keep calves in clean, dry, well-ventilated pens or calf hutches. Provide bedding (straw, sawdust) and change it often. Avoid overcrowding to reduce disease spread. --- 🐄 Management of Dairy Calves 1. Colostrum Management Feed within 2 hours of birth, at least 10% of body weight in the first 24 hours. Colostrum is rich in antibodies for immunity. 2. Record Keeping Record birth date, dam details, sex, weight, and health interventions. 3. Disbudding & Identification Dehorn calves (if needed) at 2–6 weeks. Tag or tattoo for identification. 4. Weaning Usually at 8–12 weeks, depending on growth and intake of solid feeds. Gradual transition to solid feeds to reduce stress. --- 🐄 Feeding of Dairy Calves 1. Milk / Milk Replacer Feed twice daily. Quantity: About 8–10% of calf’s body weight per day. 2. Water Provide fresh, clean water from the first week. 3. Calf Starter (Concentrates) Introduce high-quality calf starter at 1 week. Stimulates rumen development. 4. Forages Introduce soft, leafy hay from 3–4 weeks to help rumen development. 5. Minerals & Vitamins Provide mineral lick or mix in feed for proper growth. b. Weaning to six months 🐄 Care of Calves (Weaning to 6 Months) 1. Housing Group housing is possible, but avoid overcrowding. Provide clean, dry bedding and good ventilation. Ensure enough space for exercise and play to build strong muscles. 2. Health Management Continue regular deworming (every 4–6 weeks or as advised). Vaccinate according to herd plan (e.g., against clostridial diseases, respiratory diseases). Monitor for growth, signs of bloat, scours, or respiratory illness. 3. Growth Monitoring Aim for calves to double their birth weight by 2–3 months and reach about 90–120 kg by 6 months. Use weight tape or scales to track growth. --- 🐄 Management (Weaning to 6 Months) 1. Weaning Transition Reduce stress by ensuring calves are eating enough calf starter before complete milk removal. Ensure access to clean water and solid feeds at all times. 2. Grouping Group calves of similar size and age together to minimize bullying. Avoid mixing weak and strong calves. 3. Training & Handling Begin halter training and gentle handling to make them docile and easier to manage later. --- 🐄 Feeding (Weaning to 6 Months) 1. Calf Starter / Concentrates Continue offering calf starter pellets until about 3–4 months. After that, gradually transition to grower rations with 16–18% crude protein. 2. Forages Provide high-quality forage (lucerne, clover, or soft hay) to stimulate rumen function. Avoid poor-quality fibrous feeds, which can slow growth. 3. Minerals & Vitamins Provide a mineral mix or lick block for calcium, phosphorus, and trace minerals. Essential for bone and muscle growth. 4. Water Unlimited supply of clean, fresh water daily. c. Six months to fifteen months 🐄 Care of Heifers (6–15 Months) 1. Housing Provide spacious, clean, and well-ventilated housing. Avoid overcrowding – each heifer should have enough lying and feeding space. Ensure exercise areas or pasture access for muscle and skeletal development. 2. Health Care Regular deworming every 6–8 weeks (or as advised by a vet). Vaccinations (e.g., against brucellosis, clostridial diseases, respiratory diseases). Routine checks for external parasites (ticks, lice). 3. Growth Monitoring Aim for 0.6–0.8 kg weight gain per day. Heifers should reach ~250–300 kg body weight by 15 months (depending on breed) to be ready for breeding. --- 🐄 Management of Heifers (6–15 Months) 1. Breeding Preparation Monitor growth carefully – underfed heifers will breed late, while overfed ones may develop fat deposits that affect reproduction. Puberty usually occurs around 12–15 months (depending on nutrition and breed). Target first breeding at 15 months so that heifers calve down at ~24 months. 2. Grouping House and manage heifers according to age and size groups. Prevent bullying and ensure uniform growth. 3. Handling & Training Continue halter training and familiarize them with human handling. Introduce them gradually to the milking environment (for future ease of management). --- 🐄 Feeding of Heifers (6–15 Months) 1. Forages Provide high-quality pasture or hay. Avoid overly fibrous or poor-quality feeds that limit growth. 2. Concentrates Supplement with grower rations (14–16% crude protein). Provide more concentrates if forages are poor quality. 3. Minerals & Vitamins Provide mineral licks rich in calcium, phosphorus, salt, and trace minerals (Cu, Zn, Se). Essential for bone growth and future fertility. 4. Water Unlimited supply of clean, fresh water daily. d. Fifteen months to springers Excellent 👍 now we move to the 15 months to springer stage (springer = a heifer that is close to calving, usually within 2–3 months of parturition). This is the in-calf heifer period, and it’s very important because mistakes here affect calving ease and future milk yield. --- 🐄 Care of In-Calf Heifers (15 Months to Springer Stage) 1. Housing & Comfort Provide clean, spacious housing or good quality pasture. Avoid slippery floors – prevent injuries during pregnancy. Ensure shade, good ventilation, and adequate lying space. 2. Health Maintain a regular deworming and vaccination program. Check for external parasites (ticks, lice, flies). Monitor body condition score (BCS): keep it around 3.0–3.5 (1–5 scale) at calving. Avoid over-fattening – it can cause calving difficulties. 3. Breeding Check & Pregnancy Monitoring Confirm pregnancy at 2–3 months after service. Regularly monitor for signs of abortion or reproductive issues. --- 🐄 Management (15 Months to Springer Stage) 1. Growth Monitoring Heifers should continue to grow steadily – not just maintain weight. At first calving (about 24 months), they should be ~85% of mature body weight. 2. Breeding to Calving Most heifers bred at 15 months should calve at ~24 months. During the last trimester, manage stress carefully – heifers need calm handling. 3. Close-up Period (2–3 weeks before calving) Move heifers to the maternity pen or springer group. Observe them more frequently for calving signs. --- 🐄 Feeding of In-Calf Heifers (15 Months to Springer Stage) 1. Forages Base the diet on high-quality pasture, silage, or hay. Avoid excessive low-quality roughages that limit intake. 2. Concentrates / Energy Feeds Give moderate supplementation to support pregnancy and continued growth. Avoid overfeeding energy-rich diets (risk of fat heifers). 3. Minerals & Vitamins Provide a balanced mineral mix (Ca, P, Mg, trace elements). Supplement with vitamins A, D, E especially in late pregnancy to support calf health. 4. Close to Calving Transition diet to prepare the rumen for a lactating cow ration. Increase energy slightly but avoid sudden feed changes. Ensure adequate fiber to prevent metabolic problems after calving. 5. Water Fresh, clean water always available. e. The dry cow Perfect 👌 now let’s talk about the Dry Cow stage (the period between the end of lactation and the next calving, usually ~60 days before calving). This stage is crucial because it allows the udder tissue to repair, the fetus to grow, and prepares the cow for the next lactation. --- 🐄 Care of Dry Cows 1. Housing & Comfort Keep in a clean, quiet, and stress-free environment. Provide plenty of lying space with clean, dry bedding. Avoid overcrowding – each cow should access feed and water easily. 2. Health Monitor body condition score (ideal 3.0–3.5 on a 1–5 scale at calving). Treat for parasites (internal and external). Vaccinate against diseases that may affect calving and early lactation (e.g., mastitis, calf scour diseases if recommended). Watch for lameness and treat promptly. 3. Udder Care Dry off cows properly – stop milking abruptly once drying off begins. Use dry cow therapy (antibiotics/teat sealants) as per veterinary guidance. --- 🐄 Management of Dry Cows 1. Grouping Divide dry cows into: Far-off dry cows (early dry period: ~60–21 days before calving). Close-up dry cows (last 3 weeks before calving). Manage separately for better feeding and monitoring. 2. Calving Preparation Move to the maternity area (springer pen) about 2–3 weeks before expected calving. Increase monitoring for calving signs. 3. Record Keeping Record drying-off date, treatments given, and expected calving date. --- 🐄 Feeding of Dry Cows 1. Far-Off Dry Cows (60–21 days before calving) Feed mostly moderate-quality forages (grass hay, silage). Limit energy-rich feeds to avoid over-conditioning. Provide mineral supplements (Ca, P, Mg, trace elements). 2. Close-Up Dry Cows (21 days before calving) Gradually introduce transition diets similar to lactation rations. Provide higher energy feeds but maintain fiber to avoid rumen upset. Add anionic salts (if needed) to help prevent milk fever by balancing calcium metabolism. 3. General Feeding Rules Avoid sudden diet changes. Always provide fresh, clean water. Ensure adequate vitamin A, D, and E supplementation for calf health and cow immunity. --- ✅ Summary (Dry Cow Stage): Care: Good housing, parasite control, udder care, monitor body condition. Management: Separate into far-off and close-up groups, record keeping, prepare for calving. Feeding: Balanced moderate-energy diet, mineral/vitamin supplementation, transition diet before calving, avoid over-conditioning. 4. Know the proper feeding techniques for a lactating cow. ✅ Feeding Techniques for Lactating Cows 1. Balanced Diet (TMR – Total Mixed Ration if possible) Combine forages + concentrates + minerals + vitamins in correct proportions. Forages should form the base (high-quality silage, hay, or pasture). 2. Energy Supply Provide sufficient carbohydrates (maize silage, grains) to support milk yield. Avoid excessive energy (prevents acidosis and obesity). 3. Protein Supply high-quality protein sources (soybean meal, cottonseed cake, lucerne, clovers). Balance rumen degradable and undegradable protein. 4. Minerals & Vitamins Provide mineral mixes/licks with Ca, P, Mg, Na, and trace elements. Supplement vitamins A, D, and E. 5. Water Always provide clean, fresh water ad libitum – milk is 85–90% water. A high-yielding cow can drink 60–100 liters/day. 6. Feeding Management Feed at regular times daily to maintain rumen stability. Offer feed soon after milking to encourage intake. Avoid sudden feed changes. Ensure enough feed space (no overcrowding). 7. Body Condition Monitoring Maintain BCS between 2.75–3.5 (1–5 scale) during lactation. Adjust feed according to milk yield and stage of lactation. --- ✅ In short: Base diet on quality forages. Supplement with concentrates for energy & protein. Always provide minerals, vitamins, and plenty of clean water. Feed consistently, gradually adjust diets, and monitor body condition. 5. Know how milk is produced in the cow. ✅ Milk Production in Cows (Lactation Physiology) 1. Feed Conversion → Nutrients The cow eats forages, concentrates, water, and minerals. The rumen microbes break down feed into nutrients (like volatile fatty acids, amino acids, glucose precursors). Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. 2. Transport to Udder Blood carries these nutrients to the mammary gland (udder). It takes about 400–500 liters of blood passing through the udder to produce 1 liter of milk. 3. Milk Synthesis in Alveoli In the udder, tiny structures called alveoli (milk-secreting cells) use nutrients to make milk components: Lactose (milk sugar) from glucose. Casein & whey (milk proteins) from amino acids. Butterfat from fatty acids. Vitamins, minerals & water are also added. 4. Storage Milk collects in alveoli and small ducts, then moves into the udder cisterns. 5. Milk Let-Down Reflex When the cow is stimulated (calf suckling or milking), the brain releases oxytocin hormone. Oxytocin causes the muscles around alveoli to contract, pushing milk down into the teat cistern for removal. --- ✅ In summary: The cow eats feed → nutrients enter blood → udder cells (alveoli) make milk → milk stored in udder → released by oxytocin during milking or suckling. 6. Know the steps in milking a cow either by hand or machine. Hand Milking Machine Milking thumb|right|200px|The milking machine extracts milk from all teats Milking machines are used to extract milk from cows when the herd is larger than about 4 cows. The milking unit is the portion of a milking machine for removing milk from an udder. It is made up of a claw, four teatcups, long milk tube, long pulsator tube, and pulsator. The claw is a manifold which connects the short pulse tubes and short milk tubes from the teatcups to the long pulse tubes and long milk tubes. Claws are commonly made of stainless steel or plastic. Teatcups are composed of a rigid outer shell (stainless steel or plastic), which holds a soft inner liner or inflation. Transparent sections in the shell may allow viewing of liner collapse and milk flow. The annular space between the shell and liner is called the pulsation chamber. Milking machines work in a way that is different from hand milking or calf suckling. Continuous vacuum is applied inside the soft liner to withdraw milk from the teat by creating a pressure difference across the teat canal (or opening at the end of the teat). Vacuum also helps keep the machine attached to the cow. The vacuum applied to the teat causes congestion of teat tissues (accumulation of blood and other fluids). Atmospheric air is admitted into the pulsation chamber about once per second (the pulsation rate), to allow the liner to collapse around the end of teat and relieve congestion in the teat tissue. The ratio of the time that the liner is open (milking) and closed (massaging or resting) is called the pulsation ratio. The four streams of milk from the teatcups are usually combined in the claw and transported to the milkline or collection bucket (usually sized to the output of one cow) in a single milk hose. Milk is then transported (manually in buckets) or with a mechanical pump to a central storage vat or bulk tank. Milk is refrigerated on the farm in most countries either by passing through a heat-exchanger or in the bulk tank. In the photo above is a bucket milking system with the stainless steel bucket visible on the far side of the cow. The two rigid, stainless steel teatcup shells applied to the front two quarters of the cow are visible. The top of the flexible liner is visible at the top of the shells as are the short milk tubes and short pulsation tubes extending from the bottom of the shells to the claw. The bottom of the claw is transparent to allow observation of milk flow. When milking is completed the vacuum to the milking unit is shut off, and the teatcups are removed. Milking machines keep the milk enclosed and safe from external contamination. The interior 'milk contact' surfaces of the machine are kept clean by a manual or automated washing procedure implemented after milking is completed. Milk contact surfaces must comply with regulations requiring food grade materials (typically stainless steel and special plastics and rubber compounds) and are easily cleaned. Most milking machines are powered by electricity but, in case of electrical failure, there can be an alternative means of motive power, often an internal combustion engine, for the vacuum and milk pumps. Milk cows cannot tolerate delays in scheduled milking without serious milk production reductions. 7. Know eight parts of a milking machine. The descriptions of these parts can be found in requirement 6 above. Claw Teatcups Short milk tubes Long milk tube Short pulse tubes Long pulsator tube Pulsator Collection bucket 8. What is mastitis? What steps can be taken to prevent mastitis? Mastitis is the inflammation of the mammary gland. It is usually caused by a bacterial infection from Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, E. coli, or Mycoplasma. It can have many causes, including by poor milking practices, poorly fitting teatcups, faulty milking equipment, and freezing. It can be spread to other cows when bedding is shared between an afflicted cow and a healthy cow. It can be prevented by vaccination. 9. Know five herd health problems, their symptoms, and how to prevent and/or treat them. Mastitis Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary glands. It has been covered in the previous requirement. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) is more commonly known as mad cow disease. The infectious agent in BSE is believed to be a specific type of misfolded protein called prion. Misfolded prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the brain. Different theories exist for the origin of prion proteins in cattle. Two leading theories suggest that it may have jumped species from the disease scrapie in sheep, or that it evolved from a spontaneous form of "mad cow disease" which has been seen occasionally in cattle for many centuries. Cattle, like most other food animals, are normally herbivores. In nature, cattle eat grass or grains. In modern industrial cattle-farming, various commercial feeds are used, which may contain ingredients including antibiotics, hormones, pesticides, fertilizers, and protein supplements. The use of meat and bone meal as a protein supplement in cattle feed was widespread in Europe prior to about 1987. Worldwide, soybean meal is the primary plant-based protein supplement fed to cattle. However, soybeans do not grow well in Europe, so cattle raisers throughout Europe turned to the less expensive animal byproduct feeds as an alternative. A change to the rendering process in the early 1980s may have resulted in a large increase of the infectious agents in the cattle feed. A contributing factor seems to have been a change in British laws that allowed a lower temperature sterilization of the protein meal. Soybean meal is cheap and plentiful in the United States. As a result, the use of animal byproduct feeds was never common, as it was in Europe. However, U.S. regulations only partially prohibit the use of animal byproducts in feed. In 1997, regulations prohibited the feeding of mammalian byproducts to ruminants such as cows and goats. However, the byproducts of ruminants can still be legally fed to pets or other livestock such as pigs and poultry such as chickens. In addition, it is legal for ruminants to be fed byproducts from some of these animals. A proposal to end the use of cow blood, restaurant scraps, and poultry litter (fecal matter, feathers) in January 2004 has yet to be implemented, despite the efforts of some advocates of such a policy, who cite the fact that cows are herbivores, and that blood and fecal matter could potentially carry BSE. Foot and Mouth Disease Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), sometimes called hoof-and-mouth disease, is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral disease of cattle and pigs. It can also infect deer, goats, sheep, and other bovids with cloven hooves, as well as elephants, rats, and hedgehogs. Humans are affected only very rarely. Foot-and-mouth disease is characterized by high fever that declines rapidly after two or three days; blisters inside the mouth that lead to excessive secretion of stringy or foamy saliva and to drooling; and blisters on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness. Adult animals may suffer weight loss from which they do not recover for several months as well as swelling in the testicles of mature males, and in cows, milk production can decline significantly. One of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between viral strains. There is no cross-protection between strains (meaning that a vaccine for one strain won't protect against any others) and in addition, two strains within a given strain may have nucleotide sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene. This means that FMD vaccines must be highly specific to the strain involved. Vaccination only provides temporary immunity that lasts from months to years. Rinderpest Rinderpest (RP) is an infectious viral disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, and some species of wildlife, it is commonly referred to as cattle plague. It is characterized by fever, oral erosions, diarrhea, lymphoid necrosis, and high mortality. In German, Rinderpest means cattle-plague. It can be prevented by vaccination. Effective control of rinderpest has been established and by the end of 2010, the FAO plan to have eradicated it completely. Blackleg Blackleg is an infectious bacterial disease of sheep and cattle, caused by Clostridium chauvoei bacteria. It is found all over the world. A symptom of blackleg is characteristic swellings which make a cracking sound under pressure. Blackleg vaccine gives immunity against it. Burning the upper layer of soil to eradicate left-over spores is the best way to stop the spread of blackleg from diseased cattle. Foot Rot Foot rot, or infectious pododermatitisis, is a hoof infection that is commonly found in sheep and cattle. As the name suggests, it rots away the foot of the animal, more specifically the area between the two toes of the infected animal. It is extremely painful and contagious. It can be treated with a series of medications but if not treated the whole herd can become infected. The cause of the infection in cattle is two anaerobic bacteria (grow without oxygen), Fusobacterium Necrophorum and Bacteroides Melaninogenicus. Both bacteria are common to the environment in which cattle live and the Fusobacterium is present in the rumen and fecal matter of the cattle themselves. Usually there is an injury to the skin between the hooves that allows the bacteria to infect the animal. Another cause of foot rot may high temperatures or humidity causing the skin between the hooves to crack and let the bacteria infect the foot. This is one of the reasons that foot rot is such a major problem in the summer. Foot rot is easily identifiable by its appearance and foul odor. Treatment is usually with an antibiotic medication, and preventing injury to the feet is the best way to prevent foot rot. 10. Know the meaning of the following terms a. Concentrates b. Crude protein c. Cull d. Dry period e. Lactating f. Lactation cycle or period g. Oxytocin Oxytocin is a hormone which causes the smooth muscle layer of band-like cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze the newly-produced milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur. Concentrates High-energy or high-protein feeds given to livestock in addition to forages. Examples: maize meal, wheat bran, cottonseed cake, soybean meal. They boost milk yield, growth, or body condition. 2. Crude Protein (CP) A measure of the total protein content in feed (both true protein and non-protein nitrogen). Important for muscle development, milk protein production, and overall animal growth. 3. Cull To remove an animal from the herd, usually due to old age, low milk production, poor fertility, or disease. Culled animals are often sold for beef or slaughter. 4. Dry Period The rest period for a cow when she is not producing milk, usually 60 days before calving. Important for udder recovery and calf development. 5. Lactating A cow that is currently producing milk after calving. 6. Lactation Cycle / Period The time between calving and when the cow stops producing milk (drying off). Usually lasts 305 days (about 10 months) in well-managed dairy cows. 7. Oxytocin A natural hormone released in the cow’s body during suckling or milking. Causes contraction of the muscles around the milk alveoli, leading to milk let-down 11. Explain the pasteurization of milk and the proper care of dairy utensils and appliances. Pasteurization of Milk Definition: Heating milk to a specific temperature for a set time, then cooling it quickly, to kill harmful bacteria without affecting its nutritional value. Common Methods: 1. LTLT (Low Temperature, Long Time): 63 °C for 30 minutes. 2. HTST (High Temperature, Short Time): 72 °C for 15 seconds (most common). 3. UHT (Ultra-High Temperature): 135–150 °C for 2–4 seconds (for long shelf-life milk). Purpose: To destroy pathogens, extend shelf life, and make milk safe for consumption. --- ✅ Proper Care of Dairy Utensils and Appliances 1. Cleaning Wash immediately after use with warm water to remove milk residues. Use detergent/alkaline cleaners, then rinse with clean water. Sanitize with hot water or approved sanitizers. 2. Drying & Storage Allow utensils to dry in the open air (not wiped with cloth to avoid contamination). Store in clean, dry places, free from dust and flies. 3. Maintenance Regularly check and repair appliances (milking machines, pasteurizers, cans). Avoid rust or cracks in equipment, as these harbor bacteria. 12. Assist with the care and milking of a dairy herd of cows for at least three months. References