Na'vi/Appendix

=Glossing conventions= The samples of Naʼvi in this book are parsed with Glossary gloss interlinear glosses, following the conventions of the Leipzig Glossing Rules,Bernard Comrie, Martin Haspelmath, and Balthasar Bickel (2008) "Leipzig Glossing Rules", Dept. of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology an international consensus on glossing texts for grammatical analysis. The gloss is the line or lines added below the text being analyzed, or between the text and its translation. The conventions cover two areas, the layout and punctuation of the parsed text, and the abbreviations using in parsing it. Glossing layout A glossed text will typically consist of: the original Naʼvi text in the first line, followed by the same words, with each broken up into its constituent parts, called Glossary morphemes, then—underneath and aligned with this— a translation of each of those morphemes (the actual gloss), and finally a running translation of the text in English. The fundamental point of interlinear glossing is that each word be aligned with its gloss for legibility, and that each word be parsed into the same number of units in the second and third lines for unambiguous analysis. For example, the phrase for poltxe oe "I spoke to them" may be glossed as follows: For poltxe oe. {| |ay+po-ru||p‹ol›lltxe||oe |- |pl+he/she-dat||to.speak‹pfv›||I.intr |} "I spoke to them." The first word, for, consists of three morphemes: a plural ay+ (which here has been dropped, though its effects remain), the third-person pronoun po "he/she", and the dative case suffix -ru, here shortened to -r. In the second line, where the word is broken down, these are presented in their full forms, ay+po-ru. The hyphen in po-ru shows that the -ru is a suffix. The plus sign in ay+ shows that, although a prefix, ay- changes the following root, in this case from po to fo.Traditionally, the plus sign marks compound words. However, this book follows Frommer in using them to show Glossary lenition and other sound changes. In the third line, each of these bits is glossed, retaining the punctuation of the second line: ay+ as "pl+", an abbreviation for 'plural', po as "he/she", and -ru as "-dat", an abbreviation for 'dative case'. Similarly in the second word, poltxe. Here the root form plltxe appears in the gloss. The angle brackets around ‹ol› shows that it's an infix. The gloss for the infix, "‹pfv›" (an abbreviation of 'perfective aspect'), appears at the end of the gloss "to.speak" because, in Naʼvi, the position of an infix is determined by counting from the end of the verb.In languages such as Filipino, infixes come at the beginning of a verb, so the gloss for the infix would appear in front of the gloss for the verb. Note the gloss of plltxe: Because glossing is supposed to be a one-to-one conversion, the two words "to speak" are linked together with a period to show they correspond to a single word in Naʼvi. The third word, oe "I", plays the role of an intransitive subject. Because that does not have a morpheme in Naʼvi, there is no way to parse it in the second line. Therefore, in keeping with the one-to-one glossing principle, the gloss for intransitive case, intr, is connected to the translation "I" with a period.There actually is a way to mark this in the second line, with a hyphenated zero: oe-0, corresponding to a hyphenated gloss: "I-intr. However, that convention has not been used in this book. Not all of these details will always be necessary, depending on the point of the gloss. So, for example, if the only point is to illustrate the perfective aspect, or which grammatical case the verb requires, the gloss may be reduced to: For poltxe oe. {| |fo-r||p‹ol›lltxe||oe |- |they-to||speak‹pfv›||I |} "I spoke with them." Glossing abbreviations Morphemes which can be readily translated into English may be done so. However, this is not always possible: English has no good translation for the dative suffix, for example. Rather than writing "dative" each time, an abbreviation is used; these typically have three letters: dat. They are generally written in small capitals, as here, to more easily distinguish abbreviations from actual translations. The following abbreviations may be found in this book: Gloss Stands for Naʼvi morpheme accacc Glossary accusative accusative case -it, -ti actvactv Glossary active active participle ‹us› adjadj Glossary adjective le- advadv Glossary adverb adverbial nì- approbapprob Glossary approbative approbative affect ‹ei› attrattr Glossary attributive a-, -a causcaus Glossary causative ‹eyk› datdat Glossary dative dative case -ur, -ru demdem Glossary demonstrative -ʼu dimdim Glossary diminutive -tsyìp distdist Glossary distal demonstrative tsa- dudu Glossary dual dual number me+ ee Glossary epenthesis epenthetic morpheme -e- ergerg Glossary ergative ergative case -ìl evidevid Glossary evidential ‹ats› exclexcl Glossary exclusive exclusive person (various) famfam Glossary familiar familiar register femfem Glossary feminine feminine gender -e formform Glossary formal formal register ‹uy› futfut general Glossary future future tense ‹ay› gengen Glossary genitive genitive case -yä ideoideo Glossary ideophone (various) immimm Glossary immediate future immediate future tense ‹ìy› impimp Glossary imperative imperative mood (none) inclincl Glossary inclusive inclusive person (various) indind Glossary indicative indicative mood (none) intentintent Glossary intentional intentional mood ‹s› intrintr Glossary intransitive intransitive case (none) ipfvipfv Glossary imperfective imperfective aspect ‹er› mascmasc Glossary masculine masculine gender -an negneg Glossary negative ke nomznomz Glossary nominalizer tì- pastpast general Glossary past past tense ‹am› passpaspass Glossary passive passive participle ‹awn› pejpej Glossary pejorative pejorative affect ‹äng› pfvpfv Glossary perfective perfective aspect ‹ol› plpl Glossary plural ay+, + prespres Glossary present present tense (none) prohproh Glossary prohibitive prohibitive mood räʼä proxprox Glossary proximal demonstrative fì- quesques yes-no Glossary question question marker srak(e) quotquot Glossary quotative quotative marker san recrec Glossary recent past recent past tense ‹ìm› redupredup Glossary reduplication reflrefl Glossary reflexive reflexive voice ‹äp› sgsg Glossary singular (none) sjvsjv Glossary subjunctive subjunctive mood ‹iv› sbrdsbrd Glossary subordination subordinator a (same as attr) topictop Glossary topic -ìri tritri Glossary trial trial number pxe+ unquotunquot Glossary unquotative unquotative marker sìk verbzverbz Glossary verbalizer si vocvoc Glossary vocative vocative case ma, -ya whwh Glossary wh-question pe+, -pe     cmpCompound infixes The following twelve compound tense-aspect-mood infixes are found: past.pfv alm(a‹ol›m) fut.pfv aly(a‹ol›y) past.ipfv arm (a‹er›m) fut.ipfv ary (a‹er›y) fut.intent asy (a‹s›y) sjv.pfv ilv (i‹ol›v) sjv.past imv (i‹m›v) sjv.ipfv irv (i‹er›v) sjv.fut iyev, ìyev (i‹y›v) rec.pfv ìlm (ì‹ol›m) imm.pfv ìly (ì‹ol›y) rec.ipfv ìrm (ì‹er›m) imm.ipfv ìry (ì‹er›y) imm.intent ìsy (ì‹s›y) Notes References English–Na'vi dictionary Glossary