1902 cholera outbreak of the Philippines

Disease outbreak in the Philippines The 1902 cholera outbreak of the Philippines began in Manila in March 1902 and the first wave ended in February 1903. This was followed by a second wave from May 1903 to April 1904.Smallman-Raynor M. Cliff A. D. 1998-04-01 The Philippines insurrection and the 1902–4 cholera epidemic: Part II—Diffusion patterns in war and peace https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305748898900858 Journal of Historical Geography 24 2 188–210 10.1006/jhge.1998.0085 0305-7488 subscription Cholera, a disease familiar to both Filipinos and American medical officers, spread throughout the archipelago during the aftermath of the Philippine–American War.Gillet Mary C. 1995 The Army Medical Department: 1865-1917 https://achh.army.mil/history/book-spanam-gillet3-ch11 Center of Military History https://web.archive.org/web/20250317070708/https://achh.army.mil/history/book-spanam-gillet3-ch11/ March 17, 2025 liveSmallman-Raynor Matthew Cliff Andrew D 1998-01-01 The Philippines insurrection and the 1902–4 cholera epidemic: Part I—Epidemiological diffusion processes in war https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305748897900773 Journal of Historical Geography 24 1 69–89 10.1006/jhge.1997.0077 0305-7488 subscription The cholera epidemic reappeared again in 1908. thumb|200px|Burning of lighthouse infected with cholera at Tondo district, Manila (1902) Epidemic First cases On March 3, 1902, the Insular Government at Manila was notified of an "Asiatic cholera" found in Canton, China. On March 8, the spread of the disease reached Hongkong. On March 20, the board of health which consists of U.S. Army medical officers, was notified that two patients at the San Juan de Dios Hospital was showing symptoms of this Asiatic cholera.United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) 1903 267 Due to the worrying cases of the patients, Lieutenant General Adna Romanza Chaffee, Military Governor of the Philippines at the time, conducted an armed patrol near the Marikina River. Chaffee shared information that the Marikina River could pose "danger" to the inhabitants living there, especially to the estimated 14,000 inhabitants in Montalban. He informed that the water from the river are used for drinking, bathing, and other domestic uses. Due to the pollution of the river, infection soon broke out in the Marikina Valley.United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) 1903 267–268 Spread Cholera infections occur when contaminated water is consumed, often due to "fecal matter". This was the case of worries on contaminated bodies of waters by American officials. An alleged outbreak in the Philippines were also suspected to began when locals consumed cabbage washed ashore from an infected Chinese trading ship. Although the origin is contested, Charles E. Woodruff, a U.S. Army surgeon noted that uncooked vegetables can harbor bacteria from infectious diseases, contributing to their spread when eaten.Jandayran Jan 2023 A War on Two Fronts https://you.stonybrook.edu/undergraduatehistoryjournal/2023/02/06/a-war-on-two-fronts/#_edn9 Stony Brook Undergraduate History Journal https://web.archive.org/web/20250317070249/https://you.stonybrook.edu/undergraduatehistoryjournal/2023/02/06/a-war-on-two-fronts/ March 17, 2025 live The aftermath of the war with Filipino revolutionaries further exacerbate the spread of cholera. As the number of infections grew in Manila, the disease began to spread in other Philippine provinces.Interior Philippines Department of the https://books.google.com/books?id=-nwlAQAAIAAJ&q=philippine+government+officials+pictures+1910 Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior to the Philippine Commission for the Fiscal Year Ended 1902 1902 Bureau of Printing en #ProvinceDateReported first appearance of Asiatic cholera in Filipino provincesLuzon1BulacanMarch 23, 19022CaviteMarch 27, 19023BataanMarch 28, 19024Ambos CamarinesApril 2, 19025RizalApril 2, 19026LagunaApril 7, 19027PampangaApril 13, 19028PangasinanApril 24, 19029TarlacApril 28, 190210Nueva EcijaMay 8, 190211BatangasMay 24, 190212MindoroJune 10, 190213TayabasJune 13, 190214ZambalesJuly 1, 190215MarinduqueJuly 1, 190216BenguetJuly 4, 190217SorsogonOctober 15, 190218RomblonOctober 30, 1902Visayas19LeyteMay 9, 190220SamarMay 29, 190221CebuJuly 14, 190222Western NegrosAugust 26, 190223IloiloAugust 28, 190224CapizSeptember 8, 190225Eastern NegrosSeptember 29, 190226AntiqueOctober 2, 1902 Mindanao27SurigaoSeptember 5, 190228MisamisOctober 2, 1902 Response thumb|180px|Philippine Military Governor, Adna R. Chaffee thumb|200px|Board of Health for the Philippine Islands and Presidents of Provincial Boards of Health at the time of the 1902 cholera outbreak Under Chaffee, certain measures were taken to combat a cholera outbreak in Manila. It was divided into sanitary districts, and medical officers were assigned to each. The sale of certain foods was prohibited, and strict inspections of markets and restaurants were implemented. Cholera cases were isolated in hospitals, and contacts were detained. Cholera houses were quarantined and disinfected. Autopsies were performed to confirm cholera cases and avoid unnecessary detention. It was conducted by American doctors such as Richard P. Strong, James Wesley Jobling, J. B. Thomas, and assisted by Norman Williams. Bodies of cholera victims were cremated if not claimed within twenty-four hours.United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) 1903 269 In the provinces, some American army medical officers observed the lack of competency among Filipino physicians in handling and control of the disease. According to J. C. Perry, Surgeon General and Chief Quarantine Officer in the Philippines: The provincial and municipal boards of health, composed of Filipino physicians, have proved to be entirely incompetent to meet the emergency of dealing with an epidemic... J.C. Perry Reports from Manila-Cholera in the islands (1902)Perry J.C. 1902 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Reports from Manila-Cholera in the islands Public Health Reports 17 39 2240-2241 Perry further added that most of the disease control of cholera were done by U.S. army surgeons. To prevent infectious diseases entering the islands, American authorities would check if a watercraft such as boats or ships are permissible to land.Perry J. C. 1902 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Report on cholera in the Philippines for the three weeks ended July 12, 1902 https://www.jstor.org/stable/41471029 Public Health Reports 17 37 2130–2135 41471029 0094-6214 Since the Americans were preoccupied before the epidemic during the Philippine-American War, they failed to enforce the necessary precautional procedures throughout the islands. Additionally, Filipinos are banca drivers who knew the local geographical locations of beaches, some of them even avoided docks guarded by authorities. There were also the threat of smugglers who would try to bypass precautionary measures before landing. In Manila, Chaffee was disappointed by the opposition from Filipinos and Spanish physicians. Although they agreed to provide the board of health assistance, they neglected to report them the number of cholera cases while some resort to falsification. Although, there were some exceptions such as Manuel Gomez, who provided immense work on investigating cholera cases in the islands, and Luis Arbella, a medical inspector.United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) 1903 271 Medical treatment thumb|150px|Richard P. Strong, American army surgeon and doctor U. S. Army surgeons began conducting research for prevention and treatment of cholera in the islands. Richard P. Strong tried to develop a cholera vaccine for civilian capacity. Questions aroused regarding its safety and Strong admitted that it might take years to produce a strain of the suffieciently weakened organism suitable for safe use. In 1903, Japan created a vaccine solely for the prevention of cholera and an antitoxin for its treatment. As tests were given, the U.S. Army was impressed but the vaccines were not for sale and unobtainable. In Manila, a medical officer informed George Miller Sternberg, an American army surgeon, that he was using a normal salt solution to the vein. According to the officer, the solution "in collapse, gave the most gratifying results". Attempts at curing cholera became successful using a saline solution to be injected under the skin through the veins. Casualties After the first wave epidemic in 1903, official records from the board of health made a total of 103,076 reported cases and 66,387 deaths in the provinces. In Manila, there are 4,174 cases and 3,146 deaths.United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) 1903 273–274 Most of the cases and deaths occurred were underreported by Filipino physicians due to cultural taboos and fear of property loss from American authorities. J.C. Perry commented in August 1902: They [Filipinos] will adopt every measure to conceal the cases and throw every obstacle in the way of the authorities in their attempt to suppress the disease. J.C. Perry Philippine Islands. Reports from Manila-Cholera in the islands (1902) American authorities further requested the cremation of infected bodies but was met with opposition from Filipinos and Spanish residents. During the epidemic, there had been a growing anti-American sentiment among residents resulting in civil disobedience. Some believed that the cholera outbreak was a "hoax" and others propagated that Americans intentionally put poisonous powders on wells to kill unsuspecting villagers.Acevedo Christian George F. Propaganda, Folk Beliefs, and Health Information: Insights from the Cholera Outbreaks in the Philippines Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies https://phjlis.org/index.php/phjlis/article/view/84 Capiz State University Roxas City Main Campus 2021 41 2 17–22 By May 1903, the second wave of the epidemic commenced and cholera cases increased. On March 8, 1904, it increased to 166,252 reported cases resulting in 109,461 deaths.HEISER VICTOR G. 1907-03-09 The Outbreak of Cholera in the Philippines in 1905.The Methods Used in Combating It, with Statistics to Jan. 1, 1906 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/462583 Journal of the American Medical Association XLVIII 10 856–861 10.1001/jama.1907.25220360014001d 0002-9955 From March 8, 1904, to August 23, 1905, there were no reported cases in cholera. On April 27, 1904, the epidemic was declared to have ended. Another cholera epidemic occurred in 1908. It was treated using intravenous injections in hospitals, despite sporadic Filipino rebellions until 1911. thumb|200px|Cholera Squad in the Philippines (1915) The Tropical Disease Board and American army surgeons made additional campaigns to suppress the infection in the islands. Although historian Ken de Bevoise acknowledges the lack of education and poverty of Filipinos as the cause of spread, it was also acknowledged that reconcentration policies by American authorities made the infection easier. The knowledge of Americans that Filipinos were uneducated and poor added complications in handling the disease. References Sources United States Philippine Commission (1900–1916) https://books.google.com/books?id=byYUAAAAYAAJ&dq=Seventh+Annual+Report+of+the+Secretary+of+the+Interior+to+the+Philippine+Commission+For+the+Fiscal+Year+Ended+cholera&pg=PA309 Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War ... 1900-1915 1903 U.S. Government Printing Office en Category:Cholera outbreaks Category:Disease outbreaks in the Philippines Category:1902 in the Philippines Category:1903 in the Philippines Category:1904 in the Philippines