1669 eruption of Mount Etna

Volcanic eruption in Sicily, Italy January 2020 January 2020 1669 eruption of Mount Etna Etna eruzione 1669 platania.jpg Fresco by Giacinto Platania depicting the 1669 eruption 11 March 1669Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 15 July 1669Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 Mount Etna Effusive eruption Southern flank of Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy 2–3Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 130 The 1669 eruption of Mount Etna is the largest-recorded historical eruption of that volcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy. After several weeks of increasing seismic activity that damaged the town of Nicolosi and other settlements, an eruption fissure opened on the southeastern flank of Etna during the night of 10–11 March. Several more fissures became active during 11 March, erupting pyroclastics and tephra that fell over Sicily and accumulated to form the Monti Rossi scoria cone. Lava disgorged from the eruption fissures and flowed southwards away from the vent, burying farmland and a number of towns during March and April, eventually covering 37 - 40 km2. The inhabitants of the towns fled to the city of Catania and sought refuge there; religious ceremonies were held in the city to implore the end of the eruption. In early April a branch of the lava flow advanced towards the city, and on the 1 or 16 April it reached the city walls, provoking the flight of many of its inhabitants. The city walls held up the lava, which began to flow into the Ionian Sea. More than two weeks later, parts of the flow surmounted the walls and penetrated Catania but did not cause much damage. The eruption ended in July. The first recorded attempt to divert a lava flow occurred when priest Diego Pappalardo and fifty others worked to break up a lava flow in an effort to divert it. The effort was initially successful, but the diverted flow threatened another town, whose inhabitants chased Pappalardo and his men away; and the lava flow resumed its original course towards Catania. There are no known fatalities of the 1669 eruption, but much farmland and many towns were destroyed by the lava flow and the earthquakes that accompanied the eruption. News of the eruption spread as far as North America, and a number of contemporaries described the event; this led to an increased interest in Etna's volcanic activity. Context Mount Etna lies on the east coast of the island of Sicily, facing the Ionian Sea.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 1 Etna is one of the most iconic and active volcanoes in the world; its eruptions – including both effusive and explosive eruptions from flank and central vents – have been recorded for 2,700 years.Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 115 Etna had been unusually active during the 17th century, with several long-lasting and voluminous eruptions,Magee Ubide Kahl 2020 2 and volcanic activity also increased on Vulcanello in the Aeolian Islands; a similar concordance between activity at Etna and in the Aeolian Islands was also observed in 2002. During the two months before the 1669 eruption, the output of gas and steam from Etna's summit craters had been higher than usual.Scarth 1999 64 In 1669, Sicily was part of the Kingdom of Aragon, which governed the island through a viceroy in Palermo.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 26 A highly productive agricultural sector existed on the heavily urbanized southeastern slopes of Etna;Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17–18 settlements had grown there during the High Middle Ages.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 1 Catania had a population of about 27,000 and was the third-largest city of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32 Events Prelude Seismic activity at Mount Etna began on 25 February 1669Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117Tringa 2012 569 and increased over the next two weeks.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 It reached its peak during the night of 10 and 11 March when earthquakes destroyed Nicolosi. The seismic activity caused damage in Gravina, Mascalucia, Pedara and Trecastagni,Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 2–3 and was felt as far away as Catania.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 A number of seismic events are reported in contemporaneous records but their timing and frequency are not known.Azzaro Castelli 2015 81–82 Early activity that lasted until 9 March reflects the ascent of deep magma within the mountain while subsequent earthquakes were associated with the opening of the eruption fissure. These early events impacted a wider area than the later ones;Azzaro Castelli 2015 81–82 earthquake activity diminished after the eruption had begun.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 30 Eruption commences and events at the vent After midnight on 11 March, the first fissure opened up on EtnaMulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 between the Monte Frumento Supino cinder coneTringa 2012 553 and Piano San Leo. This 2 meter foot out on wide and 9 km mile on out us long fissure between 2800 - 1200 m on elevation was accompanied by weak eruptive activity at its upper endCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 and an intense glow on its lower end. During the afternoon of the same day, a second fissure opened and erupted lithics and ash clouds; historical records vary on the number of vents that became active.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 An alternative reconstruction of events envisages the development of several fissure segments between 950 - 700 m on elevation, most of which underwent brief explosive and effusive eruptions.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 At 18:30, the main vent became active and lava began to flow from the second fissureCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 from east of the Monte Salazara cone,Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 close to Nicolosi,Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 at 800 - 850 m on elevationCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 in Etna's southern rift zone.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 170 A fifth fissure segment south of the Monpilieri cinder cone was briefly active on 12 MarchBranca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 and several vents – sources disagree on the exact number – became active on 12 March around the main vent with lava fountaining.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 The Monti Rossi it cinder cone developed over the main vent and was almost fully formed by 13 March.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 Explosive eruption An eruption column rose from the vent and deposited tephra, pyroclastics covered large parts of Etna's southeastern flankBranca De Beni Proietti 2013 3–4 and ash from the eruption traveled as far as Calabria and Greece.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 29 Strombolian and lava fountaining took place, generating pyroclastics including lapilli and lava bombs,Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 which fell over the southeastern flank for three months.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 116 These deposits reached a thickness of 12 cm inch out 5 km mile on from the vent;Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 132 roofs in Acireale,Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 Pedara, Trecastagni and Viagrande collapsed under the weight of the tephra. Huge boulders were ejected to distances of several kilometers. Most of the tephra was produced within the first few days of the eruption.Magee Ubide Kahl 2020 4 The explosive stages of the 1669 eruption produced 0.066 km3 on of pyroclastics and have been classified as category 2–3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, making it one of the most intense eruptions of Etna.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 130 Subplinian eruptions on Etna's flanks are not common; other examples are the prehistoric eruptions of Monte MoioBonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 87 28,600 ± 4,700 years ago, Monte Frumento delle Concazze 3,500 years ago and Monte Salto del Cane 3,000 years ago.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 87 Over three million tons of sulfur were released by the eruption. This sulfur may have risen into the upper troposphere, causing changes in the chemistry of the regional atmosphere and environmental hazards. The 1669 eruption, however, did not form a substantial atmospheric dust veil. Lava flow Lava now flowed out of the volcano into a densely populated area at an average rate of 50 - 100 m3/s on,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 with a peak rate of 640 m3/s on.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 15 Lava emanating from the vent flowed around the MompilieriTringa 2012 564/Monpilieri cinder cone and during 12 March destroyed the village of Malpasso.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 The town of Mompileri Mompilieri it fell victim to the lava flows during the nightBranca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 and Mascalucia was covered the day after.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 During and after 14 March, the lava flow branched out in three directions and began to advance southwards;Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 the western branch destroyed villages close to Mascalucia, and houses around Camporotondo and San Pietro.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 15em right This fiery and burning deluge immediately spread itself to above six miles in breadth, seeming to be somewhat of the colour of melted and burning glass; but, as it cools, becomes hard and rocky, and everywhere in its passage leaves hills and pyramids of that matter behind it. Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 187 Heneage Finch, 3rd Earl of Winchilsea, 1669 After 15 March, the lava flow fronts began to slow down. The development of additional branches and of overlapping flows continued as lava tubes formed in the flow. On 15–17 March San Giovanni Galermo was partially destroyed, followed during the next week by agricultural land of Gravina.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 15–17 Between 26 and 29 March the same fate struck Camporotondo and San Pietro,Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 and on 29 March Misterbianco.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 29 Between 18 and 25 March the western and eastern branches of the lava flow stopped advancing 10 km miles on and 8.8 km miles on away from the vent, respectively.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 Almost a century after the eruption, Sir William Hamilton reported the lava flows had shifted an otherwise undamaged vineyard by over 0.5 km miles on.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 28 thumb|upright|Wall of the Castello Ursino, with the 1669 lava flow on the right The southeastern branch of the flow, which was fed by lava tubes and ephemeral vents, continued to advance and destroyed farms close to Catania.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 On 20 March, a branch of the lava flow approached the city and after ponding inCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 and filling the Gurna del Nicito lake,Mammino Santonocito 2014 147 on the 1,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 12Maugeri 2005 95 or 16 April, it reached the city walls about 15 km miles on away from the vent.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 The walls deflected the lava flow southwardsPappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 and after surrounding the Castello Ursino on 23 AprilCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 and obliterating the valley that surrounded it, the lava flow began entering the Ionian Sea as a 2 km miles on on-wide flow front.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 3491669 was the last year that lava from Etna reached the sea, earlier events had taken place during the Middle AgesCiuccarelli Bianchi 2011 2 1030 and 1160 AD. The city walls resisted the advancing lava for 15 days.Blong 1984 197 Beginning on 30 April,Maugeri 2005 95Mammino Santonocito 2014 148 some flows overtopped the wallsBranca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 29 and penetrated Catania, pushing aside weaker buildings and burying sturdier ones but did not cause much damage.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 29 Inside the city the flows advanced about 200 m.Maugeri 2005 95 The 1669 eruption is the only historical eruption that impacted the urban area of Catania; other lava flows in the city are of prehistoric age and the presence of lava from the AD 252 eruption has been ruled out.Carbone Branca Lentini 2009 53 Lava continued to flow into the sea, which was 17 km miles on away from the vents, for two more months,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 and overlapping lava flows continued to form upstreamBranca De Beni Proietti 2013 4 yielding a complex lava field. On 11 July 1669 lava ceased to flow and on 15 July the eruption was definitively over.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 The eruption lasted 122 days, making it one of the longest in the history of Etna.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 10 Even after the eruption ended, the lava flows were still hot enough to boil water for many months and it reportedly took eight years for the lava to cool.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 354In a contemporary engraving, Catanians are shown hanging clothes over the still-hot lava to dry.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 31 Puffs of gas would escape when rods were poked into the lava. Events at the summit During the night of 24 March, a violent earthquake took place and was followed by activity on the main summit of Etna.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 The next day at 10:00 an explosive eruption occurred at the summit,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349 and an "immensely high" eruption column rose over the volcano.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117 No caldera collapse took place on the volcano but landslides affected the summit crater.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 29 There is disagreement between contemporaneous records that mention a collapse of the summit in 1669,Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 91 those which do not, and 21st-century research that indicates there were no major changes in the morphology of the summit during the 1669 eruption.Branca Abate 2019 163 Response When the eruption began to destroy settlements and land north of Catania, the people fled to the city. Authorities in Catania requested assistance from the then-viceroy of Sicily Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 8th Duke of Alburquerque and took care of about 20,000 refugees.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 31 These refugees sought out the city as a safe haven because it was distant from the eruption at that time and they were received with great hospitality. It appears that during this time, religious ceremonies took up much of the daily lives of Catania's populace.Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 3 As the eruption continued and lava flows advanced towards Catania,Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 3 law and order broke down, panic ensued – an unusual event during a natural disaster – and the authorities of Catania were overwhelmed. The viceroy appointed Prince Stefano Riggio as vicar-general to manage the crisisBranca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32Scarth 1999 67 it per l'incendio di Mongibello ("for the fire of the Mongibello"); Riggio arrived on 18 April and found a largely depopulated city as the artisanal class and the aristocracy had fled Catania and others had followed in their wake. Riggio prepared barracks north of Catania to take up refugees and evacuated both prisons, the city archives,Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 4 food reserves and religious objects from the city. When lava broke over the city walls on 30 April,Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 4 the evacuation of the city was considered but then rejected. Instead, the walls threatened by the lava flows were reinforced, gates blocked and when the lava penetrated them restraining wallsBranca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32 and barriers were built from the debris of destroyed houses.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 3Apparently such efforts were not made in any subsequent volcanic eruption until 1960 when similar undertakings took place in Hawaii.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 3 The viceroy later sent also money for recovery.Chester Duncan Sangster 2012 66 Eruptions of Etna were interpreted as the consequence of divine wrath and suffering being inflicted on the sinful people. Religious services took place in Catania and other villages; during processions the relics of St. Agatha, the Martyr of Catania, were carried around and people flagellated themselves.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 31 Some sources suggest the veil of St. Agatha spared the city from total destruction.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 356 Fifty inhabitants of Pedara led by priest Diego PappalardoBranca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32 attempted to divert a lava flow by breaking up the margins with axes and picks while protecting themselves from the heat through water-soaked hides. This effort worked initially until 500 inhabitants of Paternò put a stop to it because their town was threatened by the redirected lava flow.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 3Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 323 The diversion attempt failed when the breach healed.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 323 This effort constitutes the first recorded attempt at changing the course of a lava flow.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32 As a consequence of the incident between Paterno and the people attempting the diversion, it was declared and formally ratified in the 19th century that people diverting a lava flow would be liable for the damage caused by it; this rule was only suspended during the eruption of 1983Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 323 although clandestine attempts, sometimes with official backing, had occurred before that year.Chester Duncan Sangster 2012 78 There were religious objections to diverting lava flows; such an intervention was viewed as sacrilegious in the context of the relationship between God, man, and nature.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 358 Impact On the volcano The 1669 eruption is considered to be the most important historical flank eruption of Etna.Branca Abate 2019 163 With a volume of 0.5 - 1 km3 onThere are various estimates of the thickness of the lava flow, and consequently volume estimates range from 0.46 km3 on to 0.997 km3 on.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 3 lava,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 the 1669 eruption is Etna's largest during the last 400 yearsPappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17 and its largest historical effusive eruption.Carbone Lentini Branca 2009 82 Its lava field is the largest in the volcano's historyPappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17 and the longest flow at Etna during the last 15,000 years.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 15 The lava flow of 1669 covered an area of 37 km2 onCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349-40 km2 on,Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17Later settlement and human modification has rendered the borders of the lava field unrecognizable in many parts.Carbone Branca Lentini 2009 85 radically changing the morphology of the volcano.Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 It is considered an aa lava fieldBranca De Beni Proietti 2013 3 that also contains "toothpaste" lava with tabular and plate-like structures of varying sizesCarbone Branca Lentini 2009 84 and numerous lava channels.Carbone Branca Lentini 2009 60 The lava extended the coast by 800 m feet on over a width of 1.5 km miles on. An older volcanic coneTringa 2012 563 and lava flows from earlier eruptions were partially buried.Tringa 2012 568Maugeri 2005 93 The 1669 eruption came at the end of a period of high effusive activity that began in 1610.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 1 The behavior of Etna changed after the eruption,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 presumably due to the large volume of material erupted in the 1669 event and changes in the plumbing system it caused.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 356 After 1669, Etna's eruptions were smaller, shorter, and more sporadicCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 with fewer flank eruptions,Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 356Eruptions at less than 1000 m feet on elevation were common during the Greco-Roman and Medieval periods but since 1669 activity has been concentrated on the middle and upper sectors of the volcano.Branca Abate 2019 177 and mafic phenocrysts became more common in the lavas.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 The 1669 eruption has been defined as the starting point of a century-long cycle of activity that continues to this day and Etna's volcanic products are subdivided into pre-1669 and post-1669 formations in Italy's geological map. Scoria cone and lava caves thumb|The Monti Rossi viewed from north The about-200 m foot out mid -high and about 1 km mile out mid -wide Monti Rossi it scoria cone was formed by the 1669 eruption.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 3–4 It consists of two overlapping conesMulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 116 or a cone with two summitsTringa 2012 569 that was constructed by intense lava bomb and volcanic ash fallout that was observed by eyewitnesses. This cone was named "Mount of Ruin" after the eruptionMulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 117Tringa 2012 579 and was then renamed Monti Rossi (Red Mountains), either to cancel the memory of the destructive eruption or after its color. It is a prominent landmark.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 14 thumb|Grotta delle Palombe Several caves, such as the Grotta delle Palombe it,Carbone Branca Lentini 2009 60 Pietra Luna cave, a system of three caves between Belpasso and NicolosiMammino Santonocito 2014b 165 that contain cave formations;Mammino Santonocito 2014b 168 and several lava caves in the flow were formed by the 1669 eruption. Such caves form when lava flows develop a crust and drain out, leaving an empty space under the crust that forms the cave.Mammino Santonocito 2014b 160 Grotta delle Palombe is accessible from a small depression in the eruption fissure. On the surrounding population The 1669 eruption was the most destructive eruption of Mount Etna since the Middle Ages. Approximately fourteenChester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 351 villages and townsCamporotondo, La Guardia, Belpasso/Malpasso, Mascalucia, Mister Bianco, Nicolosi, Monpilieri, San Pietro, San Giovanni de Gelermo and others.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 2Chester Duncan Sangster 2012 66 were destroyed by the lava flows or by earthquakes that preceded and accompanied the eruption.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 349In Misterbianco, the Campanarazzu it Campanarazzu belltower of the Santa Maria delle Grazie church survived the eruption but it was heavily damaged by the 1693 earthquake, and was excavated between 2001 and 2009.Santagati 2018 393 South of the volcano, ash and tephra fallout destroyed large but unclearly stated quantities of olive groves, orchards, pasture, vineyards, and mulberry trees that were used for silkworm rearing.Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 6 Contemporaneous sources do not mention any fatalities from the eruption or the earthquakes that accompanied it; later reports of 10,000 – 20,000 fatalities appear to be incorrect and apocryphal.Blong 1984 114 Contrary to common reports, not all of Catania was destroyedMammino Santonocito 2014 148 but its outskirts,Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 3Including Roman-era buildingsCiuccarelli Bianchi 2011 3 such as the amphitheater, the hippodrome, and the naumachia where naval battles had been staged, and the western part of the city sustained damage.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 2 Canals,Mammino Santonocito 2014 148Including the Amenano River that flows through Catania and was connected to these canals. It was buried underneath the lava. parts of the fortifications of Catania, and about 730Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 6-300 buildings were destroyed by the eruption.Maugeri 2005 95 The Monastery of San Nicolò l'ArenaMammino Santonocito 2014 148 and the Castello Ursino were damaged; its moat was filled in and the lower part of the Castello Ursino was buried beneath 9 - 12 m feet on of lavaWhich however did not severely damage statues and structures it buried.. Large parts of the population of Catania and 27,000 peasants were left homeless.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 349 The reconstruction costs, damages caused by the eruption,Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 6 and a population decrease during the events depressed both industrial and commercial activity in the city.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 32 thumb|A later engraving of the eruption The eruption is also known as the Great eruptionSantagati 2018 392 and the year of great ruin by contemporaries.Branca Abate 2019 163 News of the eruption spread to England, France, Portugal, Ireland, and Scotland, where government news pamphlets about the eruption were published. The news reached as far as Cambridge, Massachusetts, in North America. The noted Canary Islands poet Juan Bautista Poggio y Monteverde may have drawn inspiration from the eruption. The 1669 eruption has been portrayed in a number of contemporaneous iconographic worksBranca Abate 2019 163 and is the most commonly depicted eruption of Etna in its iconography.Branca Abate 2019 171 After 1669, the number of large eruptions of Etna decreased and the interest in portraying the volcano and its eruptions waned as a consequence.Branca Abate 2019 175 Long-term effects Despite the lack of fatalities, the 1669 eruption had a long-term impact on society and economy of the wider region.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 38 Inhabitation patterns and thus the economic development of the southeastern flank of Etna were influenced by the eruption for centuries.Branca De Beni Proietti 2013 1 The population of the region declined after the eruption.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 36 Several towns were rebuilt in different locationsBranca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 30 and under different names.Carbone Lentini Branca 2009 128 A new port and a new neighborhood were built in Catania,Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 36 as the already poor port was further damaged by the eruption. Its city walls were rendered ineffective by the lava flow, which provided a natural obstacle. New fortifications were built in 1676 on the lava flowdi San Lio Galizia Santagati 2015 301 and in sections that were unprotected after the eruption.di San Lio Galizia Santagati 2015 306 In Catania, the damage caused by the eruption was exceeded by that caused by the 1693 Sicily earthquake. The historic city centre of Catania with its Baroque buildings was built after the eruption and earthquake. Unlike earthquakes, lava flows cause long-lasting damage to land; even a century later the land covered by the lava from the 1669 eruption was barren and today only limited agricultural activity is possible.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 36Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 297 As a consequence of this and other eruptions, about 13% of cultivable land south of Etna and below 1000 m feet on elevation was lost in the 17th century.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 347 A westward expansion of Catania was no longer possible over the terrain covered by lava.Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 7 The impact of the tephra fallout was less; roof damage was quickly repaired and agriculture quickly recovered.Branca Azzaro De Beni Chester 2015 36 thumb|Elephant Fountain in Catania Rocks erupted in 1669 have been quarried,Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 17 especially after the 1693 earthquakePappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 when they were used during the reconstruction of the city.Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 19 Lava was used to pave roads, for constructions, and later for architectural elements, the production of bituminous conglomerate, concrete, and statuesPappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 such as the Fountain of the Elephant in Catania. The present-day port of Catania is attached to the 1669 lava flow.Carbone Branca Lentini 2009 94 Elsewhere in Catania, the lava flow is mostly hidden.Maugeri 2005 95 In 2022, the government of Sicily defined 11 March a day of remembrance of the 1669 eruption. Impact on science Mount Etna's 1669 eruption drew increased interest in the volcano's activity. During the 18th and 19th centuries, abbots and geologists compiled histories of the volcano and lists of its eruptions.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 1 Reports of eruptions at Etna became more complete and detailed.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 3 Francesco d'Arezzo melted the rocks erupted in 1669 to obtain information about their nature.Bonaccorso Calvari Coltelli Del Negro 2004 91 Geology The lavas erupted in 1669 define a sodic hawaiite suiteCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 350The presence of mugearite has also been mentioned with two distinct acidic and mafic membersCorsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 356 that were erupted before and after 20 March, respectively. These two magmas formed through fractional crystallization processes in different parts of Mount Etna's plumbing system.Kahl Viccaro Ubide Morgan 2017 447 It appears that prior to the 1669 eruption, a batch of more acidic magma was residing underneath Etna. A batch of new, more mafic magma that was more buoyant than the residing magma penetrated and traversed the magmatic system, and reached the surface. Later, the more acidic magma erupted.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 356Kahl Viccaro Ubide Morgan 2017 447 Magma was accumulating prior to 1669 in the plumbing of Mount EtnaMagee Ubide Kahl 2020 21 and formed a large reservoir that supplied the voluminous eruptions of the 17th century; increased volatile content or increased magma volume might have eventually triggered the 1669 eruption.Magee Ubide Kahl 2020 22 The lava flows of 1669 contain up to 18% bubbles, a large proportion and considerably more than expected from lava flows on the surface that might explain the fluidity of the flows that maintained pahoehoe morphology 16 km miles on from the vents. The lava also contains large phenocrysts of plagioclase, as do lavas of other eruptions of the 17th century; these lavas are called ciciraraChester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 259 and they often appear at the end of an eruption cycle at Mount Etna.Magee Ubide Kahl 2020 2 Research history Owing to its magnitude, the eruption was well documented by contemporaries.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 Records range from administrative documents that were part of the crisis management and the post-crisis management over memoirs to eyewitness reports.Ciuccarelli Bianchi 2011 1 Italian scientist Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679) in his 1670 publication Historia et Meteorologia and the British ambassador in Constantinople Heneage Finch, 3rd Earl of Winchilsea (1628–1689) in a report to King Charles II of Englandtitled A true and exact relation of the late prodigious earthquake and eruption of Mount Etna or Montegibello as it came in a letter written to his Majesty from Naples. Together with a more particular narrative of the same, as it is collected out of several relations sent from Catania wrote about the eruption. Later reviews of the eruption were written by the British diplomat Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803).Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 28 Borelli's history of the 1669 eruption is the oldest scientific description of Etna's volcanic activity. Anonymous reports published in 1669 include An answer to some inquiries concerning the eruptions of Mt. Aetna, 1669, communicated by some inquisitive merchants now residing in Sicily and A chronological account of several Incendiums or fires of Mt. Aetna.Chester Duncan Guest Kilburn 1986 28 The large number of contemporary records makes it possible to reconstruct the course of the eruption with reasonable accuracy.Corsaro Cristofolini Patanè 1996 348 Implications for volcanic hazards at Etna The 1669 eruption represents a worst-case scenario of an effusive eruption at Etna;Pappalardo Punturo Mineo Contrafatto 2017 18 over 500,000 people live in Catania and a similar eruption today would cause about 7,000,000,000 damage. Apart from the lava, tephra and lapilli associated with explosive activity would damage critical infrastructure close to the vent,Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 130 disrupt air travel, and impact both human health and the environment.Mulas Cioni Andronico Mundula 2016 131 See also List of Mount Etna eruptions Notes References Lyell Charles Principles of geology, or, The modern changes of the earth and its inhabitants : considered as illustrative of geology WorldCat.org 282 https://search.worldcat.org/de/title/1115002663 de 1115002663 Carta Maurizio La Greca Paolo Ronsivalle Daniele Lino Barbara Planning Complex Waterfront Interfaces: Reshaping Port City Regeneration for Sustainable Urban Futures 2025 Springer Nature Switzerland Cham 978-3-031-81783-0 1 136 MacDonald Alice Ubide Teresa Mollo Silvio Degree of sector zoning in clinopyroxene records dynamic magma recharge and ascent Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta August 2024 378 254 10.1016/j.gca.2024.06.025 2024GeCoA.378..245M 11573/1716526 free Poggio Capote Manuel Lorenzo Tena Antonio Notas sociohistóricas de los volcanes de La Palma Cosmológica 2023 3 295–296 https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=9103705 2792-7423 Belfiore Cristina Maria Montalto Giada Finocchiaro Claudio Cultrone Giuseppe Mazzoleni Paolo Durability tests on lime-based mortars from the historic built heritage of Catania (Eastern Sicily, Italy): An experimental study Journal of Building Engineering December 2023 80 1–2 108137 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.108137 en free 10481/91484 free Legge Regionale Sicilia del 13 aprile 2022, n.8 https://dait.interno.gov.it/territorio-e-autonomie-locali/legittimita-costituzionale/legge-regionale-sicilia-del-13-aprile-2022 Dipartimento per gli Affari Interni e Territoriali Government of Italy 2 November 2022 PDF it 13 April 2022 Taibi Giacinto https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/146800 The Cultural Duality between Coastal Fortifications and the Sea Valenti Rita Liuzzo Mariangela Patanè Tiziana 2020-05-15 Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València 978-84-9048-856-0 1004 Licitra Giuseppe M. 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Nat. 45 375 511–606 Catania 2012 0393-7143 Oronimi Etnei - Il nome dei crateri dell'Etna Etnean Oronyms - The names of Etna's craters Giovanni Tringa http://www.gioenia.unict.it/bollettino/bollettino2012-n375/full_papers/Tringali-Oronimi.pdf it https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061546/http://www.gioenia.unict.it/bollettino/bollettino2012-n375/full_papers/Tringali-Oronimi.pdf 4 March 2016 External links Simulation of a present-day repeat Category:1669 disasters Category:1669 in Europe Category:17th-century volcanic events Category:Volcanic eruptions in Italy Category:VEI-2 eruptions Category:VEI-3 eruptions Category:Mount Etna