1991 Atlantic hurricane season

none Atl 1991 1991 Atlantic hurricane season summary.png July 2, 1991 November 2, 1991 Claudette 115 944 1 12 8 4 2 36 ~ 1680 Timeline of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season 30 total 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 1991 Pacific typhoon season 1991 Pacific hurricane season 1991 North Indian Ocean cyclone season The 1991 Atlantic hurricane season was a below-average yet destructive Atlantic hurricane season, mainly due to Hurricane Bob and the Perfect Storm. There were 12 tropical cyclones this season, 8 of which became named storms. Among them, 4 become hurricanes, of which 2 became major hurricanes (Category 3 to 5 strength on the Saffir–Simpson scale). The season officially began on June 1,Staff Writer The Robesonian 1991-05-23 Hurricane season starts June 1 Associated Press 2011-07-12 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Wbs_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=gVcMAAAAIBAJ&pg=6819,4352784&dq=hurricane+season&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160518112551/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Wbs_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=gVcMAAAAIBAJ&pg=6819,4352784&dq=hurricane+season&hl=en 2016-05-18 live and ended on November 30.Staff Writer Reading Eagle 1991-11-30 Storm season is over Associated Press 2011-07-13 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OM4xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=sOIFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2436,8339439&dq=hurricane+season&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20150909053625/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OM4xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=sOIFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2436,8339439&dq=hurricane+season&hl=en 2015-09-09 live Ana developed on July 2 off the southeast United States and dissipated without causing significant effects. Two other tropical storms in the season – Danny and Erika – did not significantly affect land. Danny dissipated east of the Lesser Antilles, and Erika passed through the Azores before becoming extratropical. In addition, there were four non-developing tropical depressions. The second depression of the season struck Mexico with significant accompanying rains. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Bob, which at the time was among the ten costliest United States hurricanes. After brushing the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Long Island in New York, the hurricane made landfall on Rhode Island. It caused $1.5 billion in damage (1991 USD), mostly in Massachusetts, and 17 fatalities. The strongest hurricane of the season was Claudette, which reached peak winds of 130 mph km/h on near Bermuda. It passed near the island but did not cause any damage. Fabian was the only tropical storm to move over or near Cuba or Florida, producing heavy rainfall but no damage. Hurricane Grace, the final named storm of the season, provided the energy that led to the development of a powerful nor'easter known as the Perfect Storm. Originating from an extratropical storm, the Perfect Storm intensified while moving westward toward New England, leaving $200 million in damage and causing coastal damage from Puerto Rico to Florida and northward through Canada. It later transitioned into a hurricane over the Gulf Stream, finally dissipating over Nova Scotia on November 2. Seasonal forecasts +Predictions of tropical activity in the 1991 seasonSourceDateNamedstormsHurricanesMajorhurricanesRefCSU April <10 <6 Unknown WRC April 9–10 6 5 http://www.wxresearch.com/outlook/2008wrcvsco.pdf Comparison of Weather Research Center's [WRC] OCSI Atlantic Annual Seasonal Hurricane Forecasts with Colorado State Professor Bill Gray's Seasonal Forecasts Jill F. Hasling 2008-05-01 Weather Research Center 2011-08-27 https://web.archive.org/web/20110718124747/http://www.wxresearch.com/outlook/2008wrcvsco.pdf 18 July 2011 liveCSU June 8 4 1 CSU August 7 3 Unknown Record high activityNorth Atlantic Ocean Historical Tropical Cyclone Statistics http://tropical.atmos.colostate.edu/Realtime/index.php?arch&loc=northatlantic Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado July 18, 2023 June 4, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230604150511/http://tropical.atmos.colostate.edu/Realtime/index.php?arch&loc=northatlantic live 30 15 7 (Tie)Record low activity 1 0 (tie) 0 Actual activity 8 4 2 Before the start of the season, hurricane expert William M. Gray released his forecast for the year's activity, a yearly practice that he began in 1984. In early April, Gray anticipated a "mild" season with fewer than ten tropical storms, of which less than six would become hurricanes.Researcher predicts mild hurricane season https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33454624/ 2019-07-02 The Monitor Associated Press 1991-04-06 McAllen, Texas 3A Newspapers.com 2024-02-03 https://web.archive.org/web/20240203131348/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-monitor/33454624/ live Later that month, the Weather Research Center forecast ten named storms and six hurricanes, of which five would become major hurricanes.A major hurricane is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of at least 111 mph km/h on, or a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson scale.National Hurricane Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2010-07-11 Glossary of NHC Terms 2011-07-23 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutgloss.shtml https://web.archive.org/web/20110628222802/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutgloss.shtml 28 June 2011 live National Hurricane Center "nb" while three would hit the United States.Staff Writer Experts say big hurricane season on tap The Times-News Associated Press 2011-06-21 1991-04-24 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=CGAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TU4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6805,4829653&dq=hurricane+forecast&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160428230211/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=CGAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TU4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6805,4829653&dq=hurricane+forecast&hl=en 2016-04-28 live In early June, Gray released an updated report that predicted the formation of eight tropical storms, four hurricanes, and one major hurricane.Schreuder Cindy Facts add up to mild season, hurricane forecaster reports https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33454720/ 2019-07-02 The Orlando Sentinel 1991-06-08 Orlando, Florida D-1 2024-02-03 https://web.archive.org/web/20240203131235/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-orlando-sentinel/33454720/ live The revised June total was very close to the actual season activity, with the exception of forecasting one fewer major hurricane. However, a later revision in August incorrectly anticipated less activity, when Gray predicted seven storms and three hurricanes.Staff Writer 1991-08-03 Associated Press Sarasota Herald-Tribune Hurricane Expert Cuts Number of Storms Predicted This Season 2011-06-21 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qh0eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RnsEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3370,3188437&dq=hurricane+forecast&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160505201221/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qh0eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RnsEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3370,3188437&dq=hurricane+forecast&hl=en 2016-05-05 live Seasonal summary For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season Overall activity in 1991 was below normal. This was partially due to decreased tropical cyclogenesis from African tropical waves, which are troughs that move across the ocean with associated convection. In most seasons, the majority of storms develop from tropical waves. Of the season's twelve tropical cyclones, only five originated from tropical waves; in addition, only three of the eight tropical storms were from tropical waves, and none had the characteristics of a Cape Verde-type hurricane. From late April to late November, there were 73 tropical waves that exited the west coast of Africa. The total was higher than average, although many of them were poorly defined and had little thunderstorm activity. The waves traversed the Atlantic Ocean further south than normal, typically not becoming convectively active until moving across northern South America. Cyclogenesis was also suppressed by higher than normal wind shear, as well as low rainfall amounts across the Sahel. There were also no tropical storms in the Gulf of Mexico for only the third time in the 20th century, after 1927 and 1962. The season produced twelve tropical depressions, which was the lowest in five years. The eight tropical storms was the lowest amount in four years. Four of the storms developed into hurricanes, although for the first time in over 24 years, none of the hurricanes originated from tropical waves. The season's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 36.Hurricane Research Division National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration March 2011 Atlantic basin Comparison of Original and Revised HURDAT 2011-07-23 http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Comparison_of_Original_and_Revised_HURDAT_mar11.html dead https://web.archive.org/web/20111129161149/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Comparison_of_Original_and_Revised_HURDAT_mar11.html 2011-11-29 ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 kn mph km/h in or tropical storm strength. Although officially, subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total,Kruk Michael C. Knapp Kenneth Levinson David Ksson Jim National Climatic Data Center Global Tropical Cyclone Stewardship https://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/138396.pdf National Climatic Data Center 2019-07-02 Asheville, North Carolina 4 https://web.archive.org/web/20190702145341/https://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/138396.pdf 2019-07-02 live the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase. Systems Tropical Storm Ana Atl File:Ana 1991-07-03 2130Z.png Ana 1991 path.png July 2 July 5 45 1000 The first storm of the season was Ana, which originated from a cold-core low that persisted east of Jacksonville, Florida, by June 25. The system moved in a clockwise motion around an anticyclone located over Florida. The cold-core low gradually developed to the surface, and on June 29, a low pressure area formed within a surface trough over the Bahamas. It moved westward across southern Florida,Hal Gerrish 1991 Tropical Storm Ana Preliminary Report National Hurricane Center 2011-07-11 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/ana/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172123/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/ana/prelim01.gif 2012-10-25 live dropping heavy rainfall along its path. Punta Gorda recorded a statewide peak of 7.86 in mm on of precipitation.David Roth 2007-05-02 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center Tropical Depression Ana – June 29 – July 4, 1991 2011-07-11 http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/ana1991.html https://web.archive.org/web/20130921153245/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/ana1991.html September 21, 2013 live The low moved northwestward and later curved northeastward, exiting into the Atlantic Ocean near Saint Augustine by early on July 2. Although it was initially disorganized as it moved offshore, the convection quickly developed in organization, and by 1800 UTC that day it had developed into Tropical Depression One about 85 mi km on south of Charleston, South Carolina. As the depression moved northeastward parallel to the southeast United States coastline, it dropped light rainfall, although portions of Virginia recorded more than 5 in mm. Late on July 3, a buoy reported sustained winds of 38 mph km/h on over a period of eight and a half minutes. As a result, the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ana. The storm accelerated east-northeastward toward a stalled frontal zone, entering an area of increased wind shear. Despite these hostile conditions, Ana strengthened slightly,Ed Rappaport 1991-07-04 Tropical Storm Ana Discussion Four National Hurricane Center 2011-07-11 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/ana/tropdisc/nal0191.004 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172131/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/ana/tropdisc/nal0191.004 2012-10-25 live reaching peak winds of 50 mph km/h on. Moving over cooler waters and interacting with the frontal zone, the circulation became broad as the thunderstorms diminished. On July 5, Ana became extratropical in the northern Atlantic Ocean about 680 mi km on to the south of Cape Race. Tropical Depression Two Atl 02L 1991-07-06 1400Z.png 02L 1991 path.png July 5 July 7 30 1007 A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa on June 20, and no significant development occurred until it became Tropical Depression Two in the western Gulf of Mexico on July 5.http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/td2of1991.html Tropical Depression Two – July 4–10, 1991 David Roth 2008-08-04 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 2010-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20130921104528/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/td2of1991.html 2013-09-21 livehttp://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/tropdisc/nal0291.001 Tropical Depression Two Discussion One Edward Rappaport 1991-07-05 National Hurricane Center 2010-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025081843/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/tropdisc/nal0291.001 2012-10-25 live On its first advisory, a tropical storm watch was issued for from Baffin Bay, Texas, southward to Tampico, Tamaulipas.http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.001 Tropical Depression Two Public Advisory Number One Edward Rappaport 1991-07-05 National Hurricane Center 2010-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025081903/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.001 2012-10-25 live Nearing the coast of Mexico, the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph km/h on and a minimum pressure of 1007 mbar inHg on. Failing to intensify further, Tropical Depression Two made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, on July 6.http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.005 Tropical Depression Two Public Advisory Number Five Richard Pasch 1991-07-06 National Hurricane Center 2010-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025081851/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.005 2012-10-25 live The National Hurricane Center issued the final advisory on July 7,http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.006 Tropical Depression Two Public Advisory Number Six Jerry Jarrell 1991-07-07 National Hurricane Center 2010-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025081857/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td2/public/pal0291.006 2012-10-25 live although the circulation persisted until July 9 southwest of Texas. The depression had only minor impacts in Mexico and Texas, other than rainfall. Precipitation was heaviest in the state of San Luis Potosí, where the rainfall peaked at 17.47 in mm on in Tamazunchale. Hurricane Bob Hurricane Bob Atl File:Bob 1991-08-19 1115Z.png Bob 1991 path.png August 16 August 20 100 950 Hurricane Bob originated from a decaying cold front, developing into a tropical depression early on August 16 near the Bahamas.Max Mayfield National Hurricane Center 1992-08-10 2009-08-22 Hurricane Bob Preliminary Report (Page One) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121023133230/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim01.gif 2012-10-23 live It produced an area of organized convection, and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bob roughly 18 hours after forming. It gradually organized over the Gulf Stream,Lixion A. Avila National Hurricane Center 1991-08-17 2009-08-23 Tropical Storm Bob Discussion Five http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/tropdisc/nal0391.005 https://web.archive.org/web/20121023133443/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/tropdisc/nal0391.005 2012-10-23 live and based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters,The Hurricane Hunters are part of the 403d Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command who have been flying into tropical storms and hurricanes since 1944.National Hurricane Center 2011-08-11 The Hurricane Hunters 2011-08-29 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/hunters.shtml https://web.archive.org/web/20110902043130/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/hunters.shtml 2011-09-02 live "nb" Bob attained hurricane status on August 17. Shortly thereafter, the hurricane began to turn towards the north-northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States.Max Mayfield National Hurricane Center 1992-08-10 2009-08-23 Hurricane Bob Preliminary Report (Page Two) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim02.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121023133450/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim02.gif 2012-10-23 live After further intensification off the Carolinas, Bob reached peak winds of 115 mph km/h on to the east of Virginia on August 19, making it a major hurricane. Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures resulted in weakening. After brushing Long Island, the center of Bob moved over Block Island, Rhode Island. About 40 minutes later it struck Newport, Rhode Island, with winds of 100 mph km/h on, making it a Category 2 hurricane. It rapidly weakened to tropical storm intensity while moving through the remainder of New England, hitting Rockport, Maine, early on August 20. After crossing New Brunswick, Bob became extratropical in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and lasted another nine days before dissipating west of Portugal. The hurricane first affected the Carolinas, spawning four confirmed and nine unconfirmed tornadoes in North Carolina.Max Mayfield National Hurricane Center 1992-08-10 2011-07-12 Hurricane Bob Preliminary Report (Page Three) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim03.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172307/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim03.gif 2012-10-25 live One person each died in North and South Carolina,Max Mayfield National Hurricane Center 1992-08-10 2011-07-12 Hurricane Bob Preliminary Report (Page Four) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim04.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203914/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/bob/prelim04.gif 2013-10-29 live and about 10% of houses in the Outer Banks sustained minor roof damage.Wallace Demaurice Cape Hatteras NC National Weather Service 1991-08-20 Preliminary Report Hurricane Bob 2011-07-12 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/hat.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172316/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/hat.gif 2012-10-25 live As the storm moved up the coast, heavy rain fell on the western side of the center.David Roth 2007-04-30 Hurricane Bob – August 18–21, 1991 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 2011-07-12 http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/bob1991.html https://web.archive.org/web/20130922024202/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/bob1991.html 2013-09-22 live High winds left 300,000 people without power on Long Island.FEMA Headquarters National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Situation Report – Hurricane Bob 1991 2011-07-12 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/fema01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190408/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/fema01.gif 2013-10-29 live In neighboring Connecticut, strong winds downed trees across the region, with damage heaviest in the southeastern portion near the coast.Hartford, CT National Weather Service 1991-08-23 Preliminary Survey Hurricane Bob... Final Issue 2011-07-23 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/pshbdl1.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172352/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/pshbdl1.gif 2012-10-25 live Damage was heaviest as Bob made its final landfall, with wind gusts of 105 mph km/h on reported on Block Island, Rhode Island. The hurricane produced extensive beach erosion which destroyed coastal roads in the state.David R. Vallee and Paul Sisson http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/pshpvd06.gif GIF 2011-07-12 1991-08-23 Preliminary Survey on Hurricane Bob Providence RI National Weather Service https://web.archive.org/web/20121025172412/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/bob/preloc/pshpvd06.gif 2012-10-25 live Monetary damage was greatest in Massachusetts, and along Bob's path through southeastern New England more than 60% of people were left without power. High tides and strong winds destroyed boats and houses along the Massachusetts coastline.David R. Vallee and Michael R. Dion Boston, MA National Weather Service Hurricane Bob 2005-12-05 2011-07-12 http://www.erh.noaa.gov/box/hurricane/hurricaneBob.shtml https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063756/http://www.erh.noaa.gov/box/hurricane/hurricaneBob.shtml 11 June 2011 dead The heaviest rainfall from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport in Maine, where 8.24 in mm on fell during its passage. Across the United States, damage totaled $1.5 billion (1991 USD), including over $1 billion in Massachusetts. The high damage total made Bob among the ten costliest U.S. hurricanes at the time. In addition, there were 15 fatalities in the country. In Canada, high waves killed two people.Associated Press Toronto Star 1991-08-20 2010-04-24 Storm sweeps 2 teens to sea 'The wave just sucked them away ... The ocean was wild' https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/465703221.html?dids=465703221:465703221&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+20%2C+1991&author=Staff-CP-AP&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Storm+sweeps+2+teens+to+sea+%27The+wave+just+sucked+them+away+.+.+.+The+ocean+was+wild%27&pqatl=google A3 https://web.archive.org/web/20120111200339/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/465703221.html?dids=465703221:465703221&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+20%2C+1991&author=Staff-CP-AP&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Storm+sweeps+2+teens+to+sea+%27The+wave+just+sucked+them+away+.+.+.+The+ocean+was+wild%27&pqatl=google 2012-01-11 dead In Fredericton, New Brunswick, tropical storm-force winds downed trees and power lines.Associated Press Toronto Star 1991-08-20 2010-04-24 Hurricane Bob lashes coast 2 swept out to sea as storm hits Nova Scotia https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/465702641.html?dids=465702641:465702641&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+20%2C+1991&author=CP-AP&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Hurrican+Bob+lashes+coast+2+swept+out+to+sea+as+storm+hits+Nova+Scotia&pqatl=google A3 https://web.archive.org/web/20120111205208/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/465702641.html?dids=465702641:465702641&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+20%2C+1991&author=CP-AP&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Hurrican+Bob+lashes+coast+2+swept+out+to+sea+as+storm+hits+Nova+Scotia&pqatl=google 2012-01-11 dead Tropical Depression Four Atl 04L 1991-08-24 1200Z.png 04L 1991 path.png August 24 August 26 30 1009 One of the few vigorous tropical waves of the season emerged from the western coast of Africa with a large area of convection in late August. On August 24 it developed into a tropical depression near Cape Verde.Lixion Avila Richard Pasch 120 Monthly Weather Review Atlantic Tropical Systems of 1991 2688–2696 American Meteorological Society 1520-0493 10.1175/1520-0493(1992)120<2688:ATSO>2.0.CO;2 11 1992MWRv..120.2688A November 1992 free Upon first forming, the depression had a circular area of convection near the center.Max Mayfield 1991-08-24 Tropical Depression Four Discussion One National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td4/tropdisc/nal0491.001 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150402/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td4/tropdisc/nal0491.001 2012-10-25 live It was initially well-organized, but the depression was not expected to intensify due to marginal water temperatures; tropical cyclones generally require warm waters to develop. By August 25, the system lost much of its deep convection,Richard Pasch 1991-08-25 Tropical Depression Four Discussion Three National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td4/tropdisc/nal0491.003 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150415/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td4/tropdisc/nal0491.003 2012-10-25 live and on August 26 the depression dissipated to the west-southwest of the Cape Verde islands. Tropical Depression Five Atl 05L 1991-08-29 1800Z.png 05L 1991 path.png August 28 August 31 30 1013 Around the same time as the previous system dissipated, another tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 26. On August 28 it formed into a tropical depression about 560 mi km on southwest of Cape Verde. Upon developing, the depression had a small area of convection with a spiral rainband, and the NHC anticipated slow strengthening to tropical storm status. With a ridge to the north, the depression maintained a general westward track.Ed Rappaport 1991-08-28 Tropical Depression Five Discussion One National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.001 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150332/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.001 2012-10-25 live Ultimately, the depression failed to organize significantly. By August 29, it had a broad and poorly organized circulation with only scattered convection.Lixion Avila 1991-08-29 Tropical Depression Five Discussion Five National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.005 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150339/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.005 2012-10-25 live Due to cool water temperatures, the system was unable to maintain deep convection,Lixion Avila 1991-08-30 Tropical Depression Five Discussion Ten National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.010 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150344/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.010 2012-10-25 live and on August 31 the depression degenerated into a tropical wave about 400 mi km east of the Lesser Antilles.Lixion Avila 1991-08-31 Tropical Depression Five Discussion Thirteen National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.013 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150349/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td5/tropdisc/nal0591.013 2012-10-25 live Hurricane Claudette Atl File:Claudette 1991-09-07 1245Z.png Claudette 1991 path.png September 4 September 12 115 944 The origins of Claudette were non-tropical, similarly to the other three hurricanes of the season, developing on September 4 about 650 mi km on southeast of Bermuda from an upper-level disturbance.Richard Pasch 1991 Hurricane Claudette Preliminary Report http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim01.gif National Hurricane Center 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025084944/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim01.gif 2012-10-25 live Following its formation, it developed slowly while moving southwestward, and on September 5 it intensified into Tropical Storm Claudette.Miles Lawrence 1991-09-05 Tropical Storm Claudette Public Advisory Four National Hurricane Center http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.004 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025084951/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.004 2012-10-25 live Conditions were favorable for development, with low wind shear and a large anticyclone providing outflow, or the outward wind flow from a storm. On September 6 at 0600 UTC, Claudette attained hurricane status.Miles Lawrence 1991-09-06 Hurricane Claudette Public Advisory Eight National Hurricane Center http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.008 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085011/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.008 2012-10-25 live It underwent rapid intensification, and early on September 7 a reconnaissance flight reported that Claudette attained major hurricane status with winds of 115 mph km/h on.Miles Lawrence 1991-09-06 Hurricane Claudette Public Advisory Nine http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.009 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085016/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.009 2012-10-25 live Based on satellite estimates, Hurricane Claudette attained its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph km/h on and a minimum pressure 944 mbar inHg on.Richard Pasch 1991 Hurricane Claudette Preliminary Report (Page 2) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim02.gif National Hurricane Center 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085021/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim02.gif 2012-10-25 live After peaking, Claudette began steady weakening.Pasch Richard 1991 Hurricane Claudette Preliminary Report (Page Five) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim05.gif National Hurricane Center 2011-11-07 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085026/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim05.gif 2012-10-25 live Around that time, a hurricane watch was issued for the island of Bermuda, which was later upgraded to a warning.Richard Pasch 1991 Hurricane Claudette Preliminary Report (Page 3) National Hurricane Center http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim03.gif 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085036/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/prenhc/prelim03.gif 2012-10-25 live The hurricane turned to the northwest, passing 136 mi km east of Bermuda as a Category 1 hurricane on September 8.Miles Lawrence 1991-09-09 Hurricane Claudette Public Advisory Nineteen National Hurricane Center http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.019 2010-01-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025085031/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/claudett/public/pal0691.019 2012-10-25 live Winds on the island peaked at 23 mph km/h on, with gusts to 32 mph on, and waves reached up to 8 ft m on in height. By September 10, Claudette weakened to tropical storm status as it accelerated eastward. The next day it deteriorated further to tropical depression status, and the next day Claudette became extratropical to the southwest of the Azores. It persisted two more days until dissipating over the Azores. Tropical Storm Danny Atl File:Danny 1991-09-10 2000Z.png Danny 1991 path.png September 7 September 11 45 998 One of the most vigorous tropical waves of the season (which also led to the formation of Hurricane Jimena in the eastern Pacific) was first observed in western Africa on September 2. Three days later it emerged from the coast at Dakar, moving into the tropical Atlantic Ocean with rainbands around its convection. By early on September 7, the system organized into Tropical Depression Seven about 300 mi km on south-southwest of Cape Verde.Max Mayfield 1991 Tropical Storm Danny Preliminary Report (Page One) National Hurricane Center 2011-06-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/prenhc/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150501/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/prenhc/prelim01.gif 2012-10-25 live Upon developing, the depression had a broad circulation, located in an environment generally favorable for intensification.Max Mayfield 1991-09-07 Tropical Depression Seven Discussion One National Hurricane Center 2011-06-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.001 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150507/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.001 2012-10-25 live With a strong ridge to the north, the depression tracked steadily westward. After remaining a tropical depression for about 36 hours, the system became better organized and developed well-defined banding features. Based on satellite intensity estimates, the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Danny on September 8. Upon becoming a tropical storm, only slow strengthening was forecast, due to the presence of an upper-level trough to its west.Richard Pasch 1991-09-08 Tropical Storm Danny Discussion Seven National Hurricane Center 2011-06-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.007 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150513/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.007 2012-10-25 live The storm ultimately reached peak winds of 50 mph km/h on, which it maintained for about 36 hours. On September 10 it attained its organizational maximum after developing a central dense overcast. Later that day, an upper-level low increased wind shear over the storm, which exposed the circulation from the deep convection.Richard Pasch 1991-09-10 Tropical Storm Danny Discussion Sixteen National Hurricane Center 2011-06-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.016 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150520/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/danny/tropdisc/nal0791.016 2012-10-25 live As Danny approached the Lesser Antilles, it weakened to tropical depression status on September 11. Later that day, a Hurricane Hunters flight was unable to locate a closed circulation, which indicated that Danny degenerated into a tropical wave about 150 mi km on east of the Lesser Antilles. The remnants tracked to the northwest and later to the north before being absorbed by a frontal system. Tropical Storm Erika Atl File:Erika 1991-09-10 1900Z.png Erika 1991 path.png September 8 September 12 50 997 The origins of Tropical Storm Erika were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 2. It moved northwestward, passing through Cape Verde the following day. The system had most of the thunderstorms along the southern portion of the wave as it maintained a very large low-level circulation. Thunderstorms began developing on September 7, and the system organized into Tropical Depression Eight the following day about 920 mi km on northeast of the Lesser Antilles; at the same time, it was located about midway between Hurricane Claudette and Tropical Storm Danny.Hal Gerrish 1991 Tropical Storm Erika Preliminary Report (Page One) National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/prenhc/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150420/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/prenhc/prelim01.gif 2012-10-25 live Initially the center was difficult to locate on satellite imagery, but despite the proximity with Claudette, conditions were generally favorable for intensification.Jerry Jarrell 1991-09-09 Tropical Depression Eight Discussion Two National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.002 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150431/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.002 2012-10-25 live By late on September 9, the depression had become much better organized,Richard Pasch 1991-09-09 Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Five National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.005 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150436/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.005 2012-10-25 live and based on satellite estimates the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Erika. Upon becoming a tropical storm, Erika began a motion to the northeast. There was initial uncertainty whether Erika or nearby Claudette would become the dominant system through their interaction. On September 10, the storm developed a central dense overcast as it attained its peak winds of 60 mph km/h on.Miles Lawrence 1991-09-10 Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Ten National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.007 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150447/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.007 2012-10-25 live It accelerated east-northeastward toward the Azores along the northern periphery of a ridge, briefly interacting with Claudette. By September 11, the convection had diminished, leaving the center exposed as Erika underwent extratropical transition.Ed Rappaport 1991-09-11 Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Twelve National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.012 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150452/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/erika/tropdisc/nal0891.012 2012-10-25 live Shortly thereafter it passed through the Azores, striking São Miguel Island. Nearby Santa Maria Island reported tropical storm force winds with gusts to 67 mph km/h on, prompting the closure of the airfield for several hours. On September 12, Erika weakened to a tropical depression before completing the transition into an extratropical cyclone. It dissipated later that day. Tropical Storm Fabian Atl File:Fabian 1991-10-15 2000Z.png Fabian 1991 path.png October 15 October 16 40 1002 The origins of Fabian were from a tropical wave and a cold front that entered the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 12, which produced an area of thunderstorms in the Gulf of Honduras.Lixion Avila 1991 Tropical Storm Fabian Preliminary Report (Page One) National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182803/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim01.gif 2012-10-18 live At 1300 UTC on October 15, a Hurricane Hunters flight observed sustained winds of 40 mph km/h on to the southwest of the Isle of Youth. Based on the report, the NHC designated the system as Tropical Storm Fabian.Ed Rappaport 1991-10-15 Tropical Storm Fabian Discussion One National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.001 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182821/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.001 live although the NHC later assessed that the system developed as a tropical depression earlier that day.Lixion Avila 1991 Tropical Storm Fabian Preliminary Report (page 2) National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim02.gif GIF 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182946/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim02.gif live With a high pressure area to the north, there was already a large pressure gradient that had produced tropical storm force winds over the area.Lixion Avila 1991 Tropical Storm Fabian Preliminary Report (page 2) National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim02.gif GIF 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182946/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim02.gif live Initially the storm was disorganized, with its strongest winds located primarily east of the center.Ed Rappaport 1991-10-15 Tropical Storm Fabian Discussion Two National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.002 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025164330/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.002 2012-10-25 live An eastward-moving upper-level trough imparted a northeast motion as well as unfavorable wind shear. After reaching peak winds of 45 mph km/h on, Fabian crossed the Isle of Youth before crossing western Cuba. By early on October 16, the center was becoming difficult to locate as Fabian moved through the Florida Straits.Miles Lawrence 1991-10-16 Tropical Storm Fabian Discussion Three National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.003 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182829/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/tropdisc/nal0991.003 2012-10-18 live The storm later moved through the Bahamas and became extratropical as it interacted with an approaching front. When Fabian first formed, the government of Cuba issued a tropical storm warning from Havana to Ciego de Ávila Province, as well as the Isle of Youth. There was also a tropical storm watch for the Florida Keys, as well as a tropical storm warning for the Bahamas.Bob Sheets 1991-10-15 Tropical Storm Fabian Intermediate Advisory Number 1 NOAA 2006-12-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/public/pal0991.001 2012-10-25 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025164336/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/public/pal0991.001 liveLixion Avila 1991 Warning Summary, Tropical Storm Fabian National Hurricane Center 2011-07-07 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim04.gif 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182834/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/prenhc/prelim04.gif live Before the storm hit the Cuban mainland, it produced wind gusts to 40 mph km/h on in Cayo Largo del Sur. Its primary form of impact was from heavy rainfall in a 24‑hour period, peaking at 6.2 in mm in Caonao on the south coast of Cuba. In a six-hour period, Punta del Este recorded 5 in mm on. Prior to the storm's passage, two state parks were closed in the Florida Keys, and a few storm shelters were opened in Dade County.Dennis Henize (WFO Key West) NOAA Post-Storm Report - Preliminary Storm Summary: Tropical Storm Fabian 1991-10-17 2006-12-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/preloc/psheyw.gif 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182956/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/preloc/psheyw.gif liveMax White 1991-10-17 Tropical Storm Fabian Preliminary Report NOAA 2006-12-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/preloc/record02.gif 2012-10-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20121018182938/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/fabian/preloc/record02.gif live As it passed east of the state, it dropped rainfall near the coast that peaked at 4.19 in mm on in Conch Key.David Roth 2007-06-11 Tropical Storm Fabian - October 13-16, 1991 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 2011-07-07 http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/fabian1991.html 2015-02-16 https://web.archive.org/web/20150216160016/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/fabian1991.html live In the Florida Keys, the National Weather Service Office in Key West recorded sustained winds of 28 mph km/h on with gusts to 32 mph km/h on. Only isolated flooding happened from the precursor system to Fabian. In South Florida, Homestead Air Force Base reported rainfall of 3.68 in mm, but this too was attributed to the precursor frontal system, rather than Fabian itself. Tropical Depression Ten Atl 10L 1991-10-24 1900Z.png 10L 1991 path.png October 24 October 25 25 1009 A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on October 19. Moving westward, it developed a weak circulation on October 23.Miles Lawrence 1991-11-05 Tropical Depression Ten Preliminary Report National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/prenhc/prelim01.gif GIF https://web.archive.org/web/20121023003014/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/prenhc/prelim01.gif 2012-10-23 live Despite the presence of strong shear, the system was upgraded to a tropical depression at 2200 UTC on October 24 about 1100 mi km east of the Lesser Antilles. This was based on a rating of 1.5 on the Dvorak technique, which is a method of estimating the intensity of tropical cyclones via satellite. At the time of development, the depression had a small area of convection near and east of the center, and due to the wind shear it was never expected to intensify.Miles Lawrence 1991-10-24 Tropical Depression Ten Discussion One National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.001 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150311/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.001 2012-10-25 live By October 25, the circulation had become dissociated from the convection.Lixion Avila 1991-10-25 Tropical Depression Ten Discussion Three National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.003 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150317/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.003 2012-10-25 live The depression dissipated soon after without affecting land.Miles Lawrence 1991-10-25 Tropical Depression Ten Discussion Four National Hurricane Center 2011-06-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.004 https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150323/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/td10/tropdisc/nal1091.004 2012-10-25 live Hurricane Grace Atl File:Grace 1991-10-28 1930Z.png Grace 1991 path.png October 25 October 29 90 980 A mid-level area of low pressure formed on October 23 south of Bermuda. The low became a surface feature on October 25 and developed into a subtropical storm on October 26. An area of clouds near Bermuda became increasingly convective, and gradually became entrained into the expanding and developing circulation of the subtropical storm. Thunderstorm activity persisted near the center, and on October 27, the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Grace.Edward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report (Page One) 1991-11-13 National Hurricane Center 2009-09-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim01.gif https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024551/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim01.gif 2013-09-28 live Grace continued to organize and intensify, and was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale.Edward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report (Page Two) 1991-11-13 National Hurricane Center 2009-09-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim02.gif https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024721/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim02.gif 2013-09-28 live The hurricane tracked generally northwestward until October 28. On that day, an extratropical cyclone off the New England coast rapidly intensified and influenced Grace's steering currents, turning the hurricane sharply east.Chris Cappella 1991's 'perfect storm' a hybrid hurricane 2005-05-17 USA Today 2009-09-13 https://www.usatoday.com/weather/wdisguis.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20090820051805/http://www.usatoday.com/weather/wdisguis.htm 2009-08-20 live At around the same time, an eye feature associated with Hurricane Grace became apparent on satellite imagery, despite a lack of strong convective activity around the storm's center.Richard Pasch Hurricane Grace Discussion Five 1991-10-28 National Hurricane Center 2009-09-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/grace/tropdisc/nal1191.005 https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024716/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991/grace/tropdisc/nal1191.005 2013-09-28 live Grace accelerated as it continued eastward. It reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a minimum central barometric pressure of 980 mbar (hPa; 28.94 inHg) as a Category 2 hurricane on October 29.Edward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report (Page Three) 1991-11-13 National Hurricane Center 2009-09-13 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim03.gif https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193505/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim03.gif 2014-01-02 liveEdward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report Page 4 November 13, 1991 National Hurricane Center September 13, 2009 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim04.gif However, the storm's rapid forward movement led to an asymmetrical circulation. The center passed approximately 50 mi km on south of Bermuda before turning northeast. The rapidly approaching extratropical storm undermined the storm's lower-level center. Subsequently, Grace lost its status as a tropical system. Afterward, Grace moved north along the front and was completely absorbed by the passing extratropical storm to the north on October 30. The nor'easter significantly strengthened as a result of the temperature contrast between the cold air to the northwest and the warmth and humidity associated with the remnants of Hurricane Grace. The nor'easter that absorbed Grace later became commonly known as "The Perfect Storm". A hurricane warning was issued for Bermuda.Edward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report Page 4 November 13, 1991 National Hurricane Center September 13, 2009 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim04.gifEdward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report Page 7 November 13, 1991 National Hurricane Center September 13, 2009 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim07.gif The island experienced squally weather, with precipitation peaking at 3.21 in mm on.Staff Writer Bermuda Braces for Brush with Hurricane Grace 1991-10-29 St. Paul Pioneer Press 2009-09-13 http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PD&s_site=twincities&p_multi=SP&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB5DB42D312BD55&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM https://web.archive.org/web/20110609121856/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PD&s_site=twincities&p_multi=SP&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB5DB42D312BD55&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM 2011-06-09 live Off the Virginia coast, nine people were rescued from a yacht after encountering strong winds and rough seas.Staff Writer Crew of New Bedford boat rescued; 13 others taken from yachts hit by Grace October 29, 1991 Providence Journal September 13, 2009 https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/projo/access/579224131.html?dids=579224131:579224131&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+29%2C+1991&author=Journal-Bulletin+Staff+and+Wire+Reports&pub=The+Providence+Journal&desc=Crew+of+New+Bedford+boat+rescued%3B+13+others+taken+from+yachts+hit+by+Grace&pqatl=google November 3, 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20121103103536/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/projo/access/579224131.html?dids=579224131:579224131&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+29,+1991&author=Journal-Bulletin+Staff+and+Wire+Reports&pub=The+Providence+Journal&desc=Crew+of+New+Bedford+boat+rescued;+13+others+taken+from+yachts+hit+by+Grace&pqatl=google deadGrace Bypasses Bermuda, Heads Out Into the Atlantic October 30, 1991 Orlando Sentinel September 13, 2009 https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/orlandosentinel/access/89037365.html?dids=89037365:89037365&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+30%2C+1991&author=Associated+Press&pub=Orlando+Sentinel&desc=GRACE+BYPASSES+BERMUDA%2C+HEADS+OUT+INTO+THE+ATLANTIC&pqatl=google November 3, 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20121103103549/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/orlandosentinel/access/89037365.html?dids=89037365:89037365&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+30,+1991&author=Associated+Press&pub=Orlando+Sentinel&desc=GRACE+BYPASSES+BERMUDA,+HEADS+OUT+INTO+THE+ATLANTIC&pqatl=google dead Grace generated swells of at least 15 ft m on along the East Coast of the United States, leading to minor beach erosion.Edward Rappaport Hurricane Grace Preliminary Report Page 3 November 13, 1991 National Hurricane Center September 13, 2009 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/grace/prelim03.gif Carolina Beach, North Carolina lost about 1 ft m on of sand.Hurricane Grace Kicks up Waves, Avoids N.C. Coast 1991-10-29 Morning Star 2009-09-13 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RNIVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=khQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6366,5152585&dq=hurricane+grace+swells+flood 2022-04-24 https://web.archive.org/web/20220424030920/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RNIVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=khQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6366%2C5152585&dq=hurricane+grace+swells+flood live Unnamed hurricane 1991 Perfect Storm List of unnamed tropical cyclones Atl File:12L 1991-11-01 1700Z.png 12L 1991 path.png October 31 November 2 65 980 The precursor of the season's final storm was a strong extratropical cyclone commonly known as the Perfect Storm.Walter Drag Boston National Weather Service Office 2000-07-14 A comparative retrospective on the Perfect Storm 2011-07-01 http://www.erh.noaa.gov/er/box/PS.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20130214060246/http://www.erh.noaa.gov/er/box/PS.htm 2013-02-14 live It evolved from an area of low pressure that developed off Atlantic Canada on October 28. The system moved southward and westward due to a ridge to its north, and reached its peak intensity. The storm lashed the East Coast of the United States with high waves and coastal flooding, before turning to the southwest and weakening.McCown Sam The Perfect Storm ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/extremeevents/specialreports/perfect-storm.pdf National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration https://web.archive.org/web/20211028113645/ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/extremeevents/specialreports/perfect-storm.pdf 2021-10-28 dead 2019-07-02 Moving over warmer waters, the system transitioned into a subtropical cyclone before becoming a tropical storm.Richard Pasch Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report (Page 1) National Hurricane Center 2009-09-14 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/unnamed/prelim01.gif https://web.archive.org/web/20121023203807/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/unnamed/prelim01.gif 2012-10-23 live It executed a loop off the Mid-Atlantic states and turned toward the northeast. On November 1 the system evolved into a full-fledged hurricane with peak winds of 75 mph km/h on 5.McCown Sam Unnamed Hurricane 2019-07-02 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration dead ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/extremeevents/specialreports/unnamed-hurricane-1991.pdf The tropical system weakened, striking Nova Scotia as a tropical storm before dissipating.Canadian Hurricane Centre 2010-09-14 1991-Unnamed "Perfect Storm" 2011-06-17 http://www.ec.gc.ca/Hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=B87EB885-1 https://web.archive.org/web/20131005234342/http://www.ec.gc.ca/hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=B87EB885-1 2013-10-05 live Damage totaled over $200 million (1991 USD)McCown Sam National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2008-08-20 "Perfect Storm" Damage Summary 2019-07-02 https://web.archive.org/web/20210906073118/ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/extremeevents/specialreports/perfect-storm-damage.pdf 2021-09-06 dead ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/extremeevents/specialreports/perfect-storm-damage.pdf and the death toll was thirteen. Most of the damage occurred while the storm was extratropical, after waves up to 30 ft m on struck the coastline from Canada to Florida and southeastward to Puerto Rico. In Massachusetts, where damage was heaviest, over 100 homes were destroyed or severely damaged. To the north, more than 100 homes were affected in Maine,William C. Hidlay 1991-11-01 Maine hit hard by storm Associated Press Bangor Daily News 2011-07-03 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DqhJAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KQ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=3345,8099&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20150909075230/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DqhJAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KQ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=3345,8099&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en 2015-09-09 live including the vacation home of George H. W. Bush, the president at the time. More than 38,000 people were left without power,Staff Writer Associated Press Record-Journal 1991-10-31 Wind and water take toll along Connecticut Shore 2011-07-03 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ihxIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rgANAAAAIBAJ&pg=1620,180883&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160426204517/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ihxIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rgANAAAAIBAJ&pg=1620,180883&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en 2016-04-26 live and along the coast high waves inundated roads and buildings. In portions of New England, damage was worse than had occurred from Hurricane Bob two months prior. However, aside from tidal flooding along rivers, the storm's effects were primarily along the coastline. A buoy off the coast of Nova Scotia reported a wave height of 100.7 ft m on, the highest ever recorded in the province's offshore waters. In the middle of the storm, the Andrea Gail sunk, claiming the lives of its crew of six, which later inspired the book as well as the movie The Perfect Storm.Paula Park Sarasota Herald-Tribune 1991-11-11 Search Ended for Lost Fishermen 2011-07-03 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=y64cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3HsEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6811,330103&dq=andrea+gail&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160517115400/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=y64cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3HsEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6811,330103&dq=andrea+gail&hl=en 2016-05-17 live Off the coast of New York, a Coast Guard helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed, and although four members of its crew were rescued, one was killed.William H. Thiesen 2010-11-04 History – CGC Tamaroa and "The Perfect Storm" Coastguard Compass 2011-07-03 http://coastguard.dodlive.mil/2010/11/history-cgc-tamaroa-and-%E2%80%9Cthe-perfect-storm%E2%80%9D/ 18 March 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120318054758/http://coastguard.dodlive.mil/2010/11/history-cgc-tamaroa-and-%E2%80%9Cthe-perfect-storm%E2%80%9D/Staff Writer Associated Press The Pittsburgh Press 1991-10-31 East battered by storm born off Canada; 4 lost 2011-07-03 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Md8cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GGQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6189,8218796&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160429160412/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Md8cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GGQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6189,8218796&dq=storm+new+england&hl=en 2016-04-29 live Two people died after their boat sank off Staten Island. High waves swept a person to their death in both Rhode Island and Puerto Rico, and another person was blown off a bridge in New York. The tropical cyclone that formed late in the storm's duration caused little impact, limited to power outages and slick roads; one person was killed in Newfoundland from a traffic accident related to the storm. Storm names The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1991.https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/1991.pdf 36 NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Washington, D.C. National Hurricane Operations Plan April 1991 January 17, 2024 January 14, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240114040645/https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/1991.pdf liveStaff Writer Portsmouth Daily Times Ana, Bob, Claudette first hurricane names July 14, 2011 June 2, 1991 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=o0RGAAAAIBAJ&sjid=P9EMAAAAIBAJ&pg=5296,3651079&dq=ana+bob+claudette&hl=en https://web.archive.org/web/20160429211056/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=o0RGAAAAIBAJ&sjid=P9EMAAAAIBAJ&pg=5296,3651079&dq=ana+bob+claudette&hl=en April 29, 2016 live This is the same list used for the 1985 season,https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/HOPs-1985.PDF 37 NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Washington, D.C. National Hurricane Operations Plan May 1985 January 17, 2024 January 15, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240115154431/https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/HOPs-1985.PDF live with the exception of the names Erika and Grace, which replaced the names Elena and Gloria after that season.Tropical Cyclone Naming History and Retired Names https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames_history.shtml National Hurricane Center Miami, Florida January 17, 2024 June 27, 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120627193026/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames_history.shtml live Both Erika and Grace were used for the first time in 1991. Ana Bob Claudette Danny Erika Fabian Grace Henri Isabel Juan Kate Larry Mindy Nicholas Odette Peter Rose Sam Teresa Victor Wanda Additionally, the October 1991 Perfect Storm later evolved into a hurricane; the National Hurricane Center left it unnamed due to the heavy damage and media interest in the predecessor extratropical storm.Richard Pasch Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report (Page 4) 1991 National Hurricane Center June 16, 2011 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/unnamed/prelim04.gif https://web.archive.org/web/20121025164118/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1991-prelim/unnamed/prelim04.gif October 25, 2012 live Retirement List of retired Atlantic hurricane names The World Meteorological Organization retired the name Bob from the Atlantic hurricane name lists following the 1991 season due to its high impact. The name was replaced with Bill for the 1997 season.https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/HOPs-1997.pdf 37 NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Washington, D.C. National Hurricane Operations Plan May 1997 January 17, 2024 January 27, 2017 https://web.archive.org/web/20170127202002/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/HOPs-1997.pdf livehttp://www.nhc.noaa.gov/names.html https://web.archive.org/web/19971210185319/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/names.html December 10, 1997 Maher Brian Beven Jack World-wide Tropical Cyclone Names August 10, 1997 National Hurricane Center November 17, 2011 Season effects This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1991 USD. center 1991 North Atlantic tropical cyclone center storm Ana July 2 – 5 50 (85) 1000 South Carolina, Florida, Southeastern United States Minimal None depression Two July 5 – 7 35 (55) 1007 Mexico Unknown None cat3 Bob August 16 – 20 115 (185) 950 North Carolina, Mid-Atlantic States, New England, Atlantic Canada, Iberian Peninsula $1.47 billion 15 (2) depression Four August 24 – 26 35 (55) 1009 None None None depression Five August 28 – 31 35 (55) 1013 None None None cat4 Claudette September 4 – 14 130 (215) 944 Bermuda Minimal None storm Danny September 7 – 11 50 (85) 998 None None None storm Erika September 8 – 12 60 (95) 997 None None None storm Fabian October 15 – 16 45 (75) 1002 Cuba, Florida Minimal None depression Ten October 24 – 25 30 (45) 1009 None None None cat2 Grace October 25 – 29 105 (165) 980 Bermuda None None cat1 Unnamed October 31 – November 2 75 (120) 972 East Coast of the United States, Atlantic Canada $200 million 13 11 July 2 – November 2 130 (215) 944 ~$1.68 billion 30 See also Tropical cyclones Tropical cyclones in 1991 1991 Pacific hurricane season 1991 Pacific typhoon season 1991 North Indian Ocean cyclone season South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season: 1990–91, 1991–92 Australian region cyclone season: 1990–91, 1991–92 South Pacific cyclone season: 1990–91, 1991–92 South Atlantic tropical cyclone Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone Notes nb References External links Monthly Weather Review Detailed information on all storms from 1991 U.S. Rainfall information concerning 1991 tropical cyclones 1990 Atlantic hurricane 1991 Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines