1911 Revolution

End of Qing dynasty in China the historical event the Chinese television series 1911 Revolution (TV series)1911 Revolution (TV series) August 2020 1911 Revolutionzh 辛亥革命 the anti-Qing movements 300 infobox 2/1/2 Opstanden, revolutie, SFA022823302.jpg Huangcenba of Chengdu.jpg Révolution chinoise, la flotte chinoise - btv1b53112495z (cropped).jpg 1911年11月，上海北伐學生隊在煙台登陸 (cropped).jpg 1912Jimingxiaoling.jpg From top to bottom, left to right: inline Qing loyalist army attacked on Qianzhou Military government established in Chengdu Battles near Wuchang Revolutionary forces landed at Chefoo Sun Yat-sen and his cabinet visited Xiao Mausoleum, proclaiming the restoration of the nation 300px 1911 10 10 y1912 2 12 y(1911 10 10 1912 2 12) China Revolutionary victory * Qing dynasty is overthrown; end of Imperial China Republic of China established Tibet, Mongolia, and Uryankhay become independent Qing dynasty Loyalist military Royalist Party 鐵血十八星旗.svg Revolutionaries: Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Tongmenghui Single_Color_Flag - F8E854.svg Yellow Sand Society Provincial military governments Baguataiji.svg Shanxi Flag of the Ta Han Szechuan Military Government.svg 23px Sichuan Zhongflag.jpg 23px Yunnan Gelaohui Tiandihui Republic of China (1912–1949) 1912 Republic of China (from 1912) Tibet Tibetan militias Bogd Khanate of Mongolia Mongolian nationalists Banner of the Ambyn-Noyan of Tannu Uriankhai.svg Tannu Uriankhai Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg Xuantong Emperor Qing dynasty Empress Dowager Longyu Qing dynasty Zaifeng, Prince Chun Qing dynasty Yuan Shikai Qing dynasty Ma Anliang Qing dynasty Yang Zengxin Qing dynasty Zhao Erfeng Qing dynasty Ma Qi Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Sun Yat-sen Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Huang Xing 鐵血十八星旗.svg Li Yuanhong Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Song Jiaoren Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Chen Qimei Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Cai E Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg Hu Hanmin Qing dynasty 200,000 Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg 100,000 Qing dynasty 170,000 Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg 50,000 辛亥革命 Xīnhài gémìng Sin-hài gé-mìng Hsin1-hai4 ko2-ming4 x in 1 . h ai 4 - g e 2 . m ing 4 ㄒㄧㄣ ㄏㄞˋ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ san1 hoi6 gaak3 ming6 Sān-hoih gaak-mihng s an 1 - h oi 6 - g aak 3 - m ing 6 Sin-hāi kek-bēng "Xinhai (stem-branch) revolution" Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, in Beijing The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, culminated in the end of China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings. Its success marked the end of Chinese monarchy, the 267-year reign of the Qing, over two millennia of imperial rule in China, and the beginning of China's early republican era.Li Xiaobing A History of the Modern Chinese Army University Press of Kentucky 2007 978-0-8131-2438-4 Lexington 13, 26–27 The Qing had long struggled to reform the government and resist foreign aggression, but conservatives in the Qing court opposed the program of reforms after 1900 as too radical and reformers considered it too slow. Several factions, including underground anti-Qing groups, revolutionaries in exile, reformers who wanted to save the monarchy by modernizing it, and activists across the country debated how or whether to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The flashpoint came on 10 October 1911 with the Wuchang Uprising, an armed rebellion by members of the New Army. Similar revolts then broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in every province renounced the Qing dynasty. On 1 November 1911, the Qing court appointed Yuan Shikai (leader of the Beiyang Army) as prime minister, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries. In Nanjing, revolutionary forces created a provisional coalition government. On 1 January 1912, the Advisory Council declared the establishment of the Republic of China, with Sun Yat-sen, leader of the Tongmenghui, as President of the Republic of China. A brief civil war between the North and the South ended in compromise. Sun resigned in favor of Yuan, who would become president of the new national government if he could secure the abdication of the Qing emperor. The edict of abdication of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor was promulgated on 12 February 1912. Yuan was sworn in as president on 10 March 1912. In December 1915, Yuan restored the monarchy and proclaimed himself the Hongxian Emperor, but the move was met with strong opposition by the population and the Army, leading to his abdication in March 1916 and the Republic's reinstatement. Yuan's failure to consolidate a legitimate central government before his death in June 1916 led to decades of political division and warlordism, including an attempt at imperial restoration of the Qing dynasty. The name "Xinhai Revolution" derives from the traditional Chinese calendar, where "Xinhai" (辛亥) is the label corresponding to 1911 according to the sexagenary cycle.Li Xing The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order Ashgate 2010 978-0-7546-7913-4 91 The governments of both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution, including nationalism, republicanism, modernization of China, and national unity. 10 October is the National Day of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution in China. History Background Tension between Manchu and Han people After the Manchu aristocracy came to rule the China, they adopted a policy of placing the Manchus first (首崇滿洲) to govern China, producing a complex and enduring ethnic conflict with the Han Chinese.楊天石 帝制的終結：辛亥革命簡史 2013 嶽麓書社 Throughout the Qing dynasty's 268 years of rule, anti-Manchu sentiment never entirely disappeared. Early Qing Han Chinese thinkers such as Gu Yanwu and Wang Fuzhi repeatedly advocated the idea of overthrowing the Qing and restoring the Ming. Although their ideas did not bring about the immediate collapse of Qing rule, the seeds of revolution retained a degree of vitality within underground organizations and secret societies. The various movements launched by Ming loyalists, the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the activities of the Tiandihui, the White Lotus Rebellion, and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom war all expressed a spirit of ethnic resistance, and the revolution led by Sun Yat-sen was rooted in these traditions.徐中約 中國近代史 2001 香港中文大學出版社 香港 458 Although the court publicly proclaimed that no distinction was drawn between Manchus and Han and that both were employed in staffing government offices, in reality the status of Manchus and Han was not equal. Before the Taiping revolution, key military and administrative posts were mostly held by Manchus, and even those positions allotted to Han Chinese could be filled by Manchus, whereas the Han had no such reciprocal privilege. After the 1890s, anti-Manchu sentiment rose again. The writings of the late-Ming loyalist elders became an important intellectual resource of the time. Although Wang Fuzhi wrote prolifically, he had little influence in the late Ming and early Qing, largely because it was the court's leading ministers—Hunan-Xiang literati such as Zeng Guofan and Guo Songtao—who strenuously championed him.陈焱 发现王夫之：晚清以来的船山升格运动（1864-1982） 2022 上海人民出版社 In his Three Principles of the People, Sun Yat-sen wrote: "The Manchu conquest of China was a conquest of the majority by the minority, seeking to make use of the majority Chinese as their slaves," and "China has been completely subjugated twice already: once under the Yuan dynasty, and once under the Qing." He held that under the rule of the Qing government, the Han were nothing but four hundred million oppressed and discriminated-against subjects of a conquered nation.邓辉 辛亥革命时期孙中山的民族统一思想 中南民族学院学报 1996 http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/sxwh/2007-04-02/27578.shtml 2023-09-09 2024-12-02 https://web.archive.org/web/20241202165013/http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/sxwh/2007-04-02/27578.shtml Feng Ziyou (馮自由) noted that in the early days of the Xingzhonghui, "the only propaganda tools used were a few standalone editions: the Record of Ten Days at Yangzhou, the Record of the Jiading Massacre, and selected reprints of the 'On the Ruler' and 'On the Minister' chapters from the Waiting for the Dawn."冯自由 革命逸史 Huang Xing likewise recounted that his distant ancestor had, in the early Qing, written a testamentary injunction that the descendants of the Huang family should never serve as officials under the Qing.谭人凤 谭人凤集 1985 湖南人民出版社 433 As China's perilous situation deepened after the Boxer Rebellion and student movements among those studying in Japan developed, the tide of anti-Manchu revolution rose ever higher and became difficult to contain.钟卓安 辛亥革命与反满思潮 广东社会科学 http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/sxwh/2005-09-07/26953.shtml 1991 2023-09-09 2024-12-02 https://web.archive.org/web/20241202164049/http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/sxwh/2005-09-07/26953.shtml Invasion by foreign powers Century of Humiliation left horizontal left/right/center Heads of state of Qing China in the late 19th century left/right/center Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg 140 Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), who titularly controlled court politics for 47 years EmperorGuangxu.jpg 142 Guangxu Emperor (1871–1908), who ruled over the Qing dynasty from 1875 until his death 300 After suffering its first defeat by the West in the First Opium War in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. After its defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through the Self-Strengthening Movement. In the wars against the Taiping (1851–1864), Nian (1851–1868), Yunnan (1856–1873) and Dungan (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials.Wang 1998 106, 344 After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, the Chinese defeat to Imperial Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change.Bevir Mark Encyclopedia of Political Theory Sage 2010 978-1-4129-5865-3 Thousand Oaks, CA 168 The court established the New Army under Yuan Shikai, and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. An unsuccessful reform Hundred Days' Reform right horizontal Major reformers of Hundred Days' Reform and their desinations left/right/center Kang Youwei circa 1905.jpg 125 Kang Youwei (1858–1927), fled into exile and remained a royalist and supported restoring the last Qing emperor Puyi in 1917 MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg 122 Liang Qichao (1873–1929), fled into exile, and later became the Minister of Justice of the Republic of China Tansitong.jpg 91 Tan Sitong (1865–1898), was executed together with other five advocates of the reform 400 In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor turned to reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, who offered a program that was inspired in large part by the reforms in Japan. They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called Hundred Days' Reform. The reform was abruptly canceled by a conservative coup, led by Empress Dowager Cixi.Chang Kang-i Sun Kang-i Sun Chang The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature Owen Stephen Stephen Owen (academic) Cambridge University Press 2010 978-0-5211-1677-0 2 441 The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908.Wang 1998 106, 344 The reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Boxer Rebellion by Chinese nationalists, which was encouraged by the Empress Dowager, prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900. After the Allies imposed a punitive settlement in 1901, the Qing court carried out basic fiscal and administrative reforms, including local and provincial elections. The moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many of them like Zou Rong felt strong anti-Manchu prejudice and blamed the Qing for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed the Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor,Wang 1998 106, 344 but others, such as Sun Yat-sen organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty, rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas but created a following among overseas Chinese in North America, Southeast Asia and within China, even in the new armies. Sun Yat-sen believed that China needed to transition from an absolute monarchy to a democratic republic and believed that a revolution was the only way to modernize China and defend its sovereignty from Western colonial powers and Japan.https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/chinese-rev Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - Office of the Historian History.state.gov 29 June 2026 The Chinese famine of 1906–1907 was also a major contributor to the revolution.Dianda Bas https://books.google.com/books?id=wGKZDwAAQBAJ Political Routes to Starvation: Why Does Famine Kill? Vernon 2019 978-1-6227-3508-2 45 Google Books Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-year-old Xuantong Emperor, with Prince Chun as a regent. The prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, which caused further support for revolutionaries. Revolutionary movements and debates Early activities led by Sun thumb|upright|left|Sun Yat-sen was the first advocate of political revolution and renowned highly as regarded as the "Forerunner of the Revolution" (革命先行者) by both nationalists and communists; here is picture taken when he was in exile in London in 1896 Many revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wan's Furen Literary Society, which was created in British Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including Tse Tsan-tai, who made political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first manhua, and who later became one of the core founders of the South China Morning Post.29 March 2011 Hong Kong played a key role in the life of Sun Yat-sen South China Morning Post Sun's Revive China Society was established in Honolulu in 1894, the main purpose being raising funds for revolutions.Lum Yansheng Ma Sun Yat-sen in Hawaii Lum Raymond Mun Kong University of Hawaiʻi Press 1999 978-0-8248-2179-1 Honolulu 6–7 The two organizations merged in 1894.Curthoys Ann Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective Lake Marilyn ANU E-Press 2005 978-1-920942-44-1 Canberra 101 Revolutionary organizations Smaller groups The Huaxinghui (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by the notables Huang Xing, Zhang Shizhao, Chen Tianhua, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren, and 100 others. Its motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise."Platt Stephen R. Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China Harvard University Press 2007 978-0-6740-2665-0 128 The Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904 in Shanghai, by Cai Yuanpei. Other notable members included Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang.Goossaert Vincent The Religious Question in Modern China Palmer David A. University of Chicago Press 2011 978-0-226-30416-8 Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen. One of the most famous female revolutionaries was Qiu Jin, who fought for women's rights and was also from the Guangfuhui.Wang 1998 287 The Gelaohui (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with Zhu De, Wu Yuzhang, Liu Zhidan (zh 劉志丹) and He Long. The revolutionary group would eventually develop a strong link with the later Chinese Communist Party.June 2025 The Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth Society) were groups of secretive, anti-Manchu fraternities provided the vital manpower, military networks and localized uprisings that ultimately toppled the Qing Dynasty. Originally formed in the 17th century as a network to oppose the ruling Qing and restore the Han Chinese Ming dynasty, the Tiandihui operated on blood oaths and the rallying cry "Oppose Qing, restore Ming" (Fan Qing Fu Ming). By the early 20th century, the anti-Qing sentiment was easily adapted by Republican revolutionaries into a modern nationalist movement aimed at stripping the Manchus of power and returning China to the Han majority. Sun Yat-sen recognized that modern, reform-minded intellectuals lacked the military might or broad grassroots reach required to fight the imperial state. To bridge this gap, he actively courted secret societies and even joined the Tiandihui's overseas branch in Hawaii (the Hongmen). He utilized these deeply established, underground networks to smuggle weapons, raise funds from the overseas Chinese diaspora and recruit guerrilla fighters for his early, abortive uprisings in southern China.The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History Tongmenghui thumb|right|Sun Yat-sen with members of the Singaporean Branch of Tongmenghui Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, the Huaxinghui, and the Guangfuhui and established the unified Tongmenghui (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo. It had loose organizations distributed across and outside China. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of the unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin. When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years old.Etō Shinkichi Schiffrin Harold Z. China's Republican Revolution University of Tokyo Press 1994 978-4-13-027030-4 Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the Journal of Current Pictorial.Wong, Wendy Siuyi. (2001) Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua. Princeton Architectural Press. New York. 1-5689-8269-0 Later groups In February 1906, Rizhihui (zh 日知會) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu (zh 孫武), Zhang Nanxian (zh 張難先), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin.为君丘, 張運宗. (2003). 走入近代中國. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. 978-957-11-3175-7.蔣緯國. (1981). 建立民國, Vol. 2. 國民革命戰史: 第1部. 黎明文化事業公司. University of California. Digitized 14 February 2011. A nucleus of attendees at the conference evolved into the Tongmenghui's establishment in Hubei. In July 1907, several members of the Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the Yangtze. Liu Quiyi (zh 劉揆一), Jiao Dafeng (zh 焦達峰), Zhang Boxiang (zh 張伯祥) and Sun Wu (zh 孫武) established the Gongjinhui (zh 共進會).饒懷民. (2006). 辛亥革命與清末民初社會/中國近代史事論叢. 中華書局 publishing. 978-7-1010-5156-8.Wang 1998 390–391 In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary Society) (zh 文學社).張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. (2002). 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of 中國歷史, 張 豈之. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. 978-9-5711-2898-6. pp. 178–186 Jiang Yiwu (zh 蔣翊武) was chosen as the leader.蔡登山. 繁華落盡──洋場才子與小報文人. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. 978-9-8622-1826-6. p. 42. Both organizations would play a major role during the Wuchang Uprising. Many young revolutionaries supported anarchism in China. In Tokyo, Liu Shipei proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In Paris, well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie, agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress. They believed that fundamental cultural change and a revolution in family, gender, and social values would remove the need for government and coercion. Zhang Ji and Wang Jingwei were among the anarchists, who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei. Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of the anarchists would later assume high positions in the Kuomintang.Yu Robert Scalapino and George T. https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement The Chinese Anarchist Movement 1961 en Debates Revolutionaries and Han-nationalists Anti-Qing sentiment Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing and anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the minority Manchu and the majority Han Chinese from the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last Han Chinese dynasty. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive Zhonghua, establish a republic, and distribute land equally among the people". (zh 驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).計秋楓, 朱慶葆. (2001). 中國近代史, V. 1. Chinese University Press. 978-9-6220-1987-4. p. 468. Many underground groups promoted the ideas of "resist Qing and restore the Ming" (反清復明), which had been around since the days of the Taiping Rebellion.楊碧玉. 洪秀全政治人格之研究. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 Publishing. 978-9-8622-1141-0. Others, such as Zhang Binglin, spread calls to "slay the Manchus" (zh 興漢滅胡)秘密宗教与秘密会社 _中国人民大学清史研究所 http://iqh.ruc.edu.cn/old/jsmmhsymjjpyj/mmzjymmhs/de150c3292eb40d6ab48af75348ebcb6.htm 2026-05-22 iqh.ruc.edu.cn and the concept of "Anti-Manchuism" (zh 排滿主義).Crossley Pamela Kyle Orphan Warriors Princeton University Press 1990 978-0-691-00877-6 180–181 Qing loyalists thumb|Members of loyalist Canadian Branch of Chinese Empire Reform Association, 1903 Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance did not find their revolutionary activities in the Malaya region smooth sailing. Because Britain maintained diplomatic relations with the Qing Empire, the consulates that the Qing established in Singapore and Penang became an obstacle to revolutionary activity. In addition, the Qing government dispatched diplomats and envoys to visit various parts of Malaya, where they were welcomed by the local Chinese. The main purpose of these officials' visits was to call upon the local Chinese to pledge loyalty to the Qing, and some even sold official titles as a means of winning over the local Chinese. Hu Hanmin, head of the Nanyang General Branch of the Tongmenghui, described the Nanyang overseas Chinese in his work Nanyang and the Chinese Revolution: "One had only to have served as some petty official under the Manchus and go boasting to Nanyang, saying: 'For three generations my family were high officials of the first rank, and I too held a distinguished post, with a grand button of rank!'—and with such boasting he could instantly stir the overseas Chinese into revering him." From this it can be seen that the Chinese in the Malaya region at that time were conservative in their thinking. This conservative mindset also caused the call for constitutional monarchy made by overseas constitutionalist leaders such as Kang Youwei, who were active in the region, to find a response among the local Chinese. Because the overseas constitutionalists led by Kang Youwei and the revolutionaries led by Sun Yat-sen differed greatly in their conceptions of a new political system, a great debate erupted when these two factions—along with even more conservative figures—met in Nanyang. Both the constitutionalists and the revolutionaries founded their own newspapers, in which they debated fiercely over the issues of constitutional monarchy versus democratic revolution. In the debate, the upper strata of local Chinese society were supporters of the constitutionalists, upholding the constitutionalist cause in order to keep their own property unaffected and to protect the interests they had already gained. Meanwhile, some of the lower and middle classes—such as shop clerks, small merchants, cultural and educational figures, miners, rubber tappers, peddlers, and other common folk, as well as the members of the sworn brotherhoods新加坡華僑會黨對辛亥革命影響之硏究 黄建淳 1988 新加坡南洋學會 新加坡—were supporters of the revolutionaries. The war of words first began in Singapore. The Lat Pau supported the Qing government, and newspapers supporting the constitutionalists included the Nanyang Union Times (南洋總匯新報), the Sing Po, and the Thien Nan Shin Pao (天南新報). On the revolutionary side, support came successively from the Thoe Lam Jit Poh (圖南日報), the Chong Shing Yit Pao, the Sing Chew Morning Post (星洲晨報), and the Nan Kiao Jit Pao, among others.孙中山 新马华侨与辛亥革命 戴学稷 2003 團結 6期 At the time, the war of words between the Lat Pau and both the Chong Shing Yit Pao and the Nanyang Union Times became the first war of words among the Chinese-language newspapers of Nanyang.新加坡对孙中山革命事业的贡献 彭松涛 1995 團結 5期新加坡对孙中山革命事业的贡献（续） 彭松涛 1996 團結 1期 As for Malaya, in 1906 Huang Jinqing founded the Penang Sin Poe (檳城日報), the first newspaper established by the revolutionaries in Penang. On 10 December 1910, Sun Yat-sen, Chen Xinzheng (陳新政), Zhuang Yin'an (莊銀安), and others founded the Kwong Wah Yit Poh in Penang. The Kwong Wah Yit Poh was not only the most important organ of the revolutionaries in Malaya, but is also the longest-running Chinese-language daily in the history of Malaysian journalism and indeed in the history of the Chinese-language press worldwide. The two characters "Kwong Wah" (光華) mean "to bring glory to China", and were personally chosen by Sun Yat-sen.光我华夏——本报创刊三十七周年纪念辞，载 光华日报创刊三十七周年纪念特刊 傅镜冰 1947 光华日报 槟城 1南洋各地革命党报述略，载 革命逸史·第四集 冯自由 1981 中华书局 北京 Society and class Many groups supported the 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, and farmers. Overseas Chinese thumb|The proto-national flag designed by Sun Yat-sen in Wan Qing Yuan, Singapore, 1906. The banner reads "Long Live the People".|upright Assistance from the overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.Lee Khoon Choy Pioneers of Modern China World Scientific 2005 981-256-618-X The overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of British Malaya. Many of those groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".Gao 2009 29, 156 Emerging intellectual class The Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of the Self-Strengthening movement. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.Fenby 2008 96, 106 A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students and contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai, Zhu Zhixin, and Wang Jingwei were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like Zou Rong, known for writing Revolutionary Army, a book in which he supported the extermination of the Manchus and creating new revolutionary Han figures.Fenby 2008 109 Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating those organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; the groups would provide most of the manpower needed to overthrow the Qing dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like Sanhehui were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."Complete works of Sun Yat-sen 《總理全集》 1st ed., p. 920 Soldiers of the New Armies right horizontal left/right/center left/right/center Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg 110 Yuan Shikai (1859–1916) Beiyang Army.jpg 230 Beiyang Army being trained in Xiaozhan, Tianjin 400 Yuan rose to power in north China as the military leader of the Beiyang Army The New Army was formed in 1901, after the Qing defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, and was launched by a decree from eight provinces. The New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped. Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.Fenby 2008 96, 106 In 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.Spence Jonathan D. Jonathan Spence The Search for Modern China The Search for Modern China W. W. Norton 1990 0-3933-0780-8 250–256 Gentry and businessmen thumb|left|Prince Qing with royal cabinet members The gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. Those middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a cabinet with Prince Qing as prime minister.Rhoads 2017 21 By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.Wang 1998 76 Foreign supporters Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners, and the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of the Tongmenghui. Miyazaki Touten was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and Ryōhei Uchida. Homer Lea, an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported his military ambitions.Kaplan Lawrence M. https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&pg=PR4 Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune 2010 University Press of Kentucky 978-0-8131-2617-3 Lexington Google Books British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.Lau Kit-ching Chan China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945 Chinese University Press 1990 978-9-6220-1409-1 37 Some foreigners, such as the English explorer Arthur de Carle Sowerby, led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.Borst-Smith Ernest F. https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft Caught in the Chinese Revolution T. Fisher Unwin 1912 The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus and believed that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.Nash Jay Robert https://books.google.com/books?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA99 Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Tricks and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today M. Evans 1997 978-1-4617-4770-3 99ff The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist Gen'yōsha leader Tōyama Mitsuru supported anti-Manchu and anti-Qing revolutionary activities, including those organized by Sun and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing Tongmenghui was founded and based in exile in Japan, where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like Tōten Miyazaki in of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.Bergère Marie-Claire https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg Sun Yat-sen Lloyd Janet Stanford University Press 1998 978-0-8047-4011-1 132 registration The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen, who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese.Horne Gerald https://books.google.com/books?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA252 Race War!: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire 2005 New York University Press 978-0-8147-3641-8 252 Google BooksChung Dooeum https://books.google.com/books?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun Élitist fascism: Chiang Kaishek's Blueshirts in 1930s China 2000 Ashgate 978-0-7546-1166-0 61 Google BooksChung Dooeum https://books.google.com/books?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun A re-evaluation of Chiang Kaishek's blueshirts: Chinese fascism in the 1930s University of London 1997 78 Google Books According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. In 1932, the Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan.Carlisle Rodney https://books.google.com/books?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA71 Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence Routledge 2015 978-1-3174-7177-6 71 Google Books Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, Kaoru Otsuki. Prelude Most of the central foci of the uprisings were connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising. 1900–1907 First Guangzhou uprising thumb|Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising In the spring of 1895, the Revive China Society, based in Hong Kong, planned the 1895 Guangzhou Uprising zh 乙未廣州起義 First Guangzhou Uprising. Lu Haodong was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' Blue Sky with a White Sun flag.Gao 2009 29, 156 On 26 October 1895, Yeung Ku-wan and Sun Yat-sen led Zheng Shiliang and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government. The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.計秋楓, 朱慶葆. (2001). 中國近代史, Vol. 1. Chinese University Press. 978-9-6220-1987-4. p. 464. The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong banned the two men from the territory for five years. Sun went into exile; promoted revolution; and raised funds in Japan, the United States, Canada, and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong. After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just the number "6348".South China Morning Post. 6 April 2011. Waiting may be over at the grave of an unsung hero. Independence Army uprising In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang (zh 唐才常) and Tan Sitong of the previous Foot Emancipation Society organized the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising (zh 自立軍起義) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900. Their goal was to overthrow Empress Dowager Cixi to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governors-general of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.Wang 1998 424 Huizhou uprising right horizontal Zhang Zhitong-1.jpg 110 Zhang Zhidong Li Hung-Chang, c. 1896.jpg 118 Li Hongzhang 300 Two prominent Qing figures representing Self-Strengthening Movement at the time On 8 October 1900, Sun ordered the launch of the Huizhou uprising (zh 惠州起義).Gao 2009 Chronology section The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after Japanese Prime Minister Hirobumi Ito prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities in Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. Accordingly, the uprising also failed. The British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in the uprising. Great Ming uprising Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903 in an attempt to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (zh 大明順天國).陳錫祺. (1991). 孫中山年谱長編 Vol. 1. 中华书局. 978-7-1010-0685-8. It involved Tse Tsan-tai, Li Jitang (zh 李紀堂), Liang Muguang (zh 梁慕光), and Hong Quanfu (zh 洪全福), who had taken part in the Jintian uprising during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom era.申友良. (2002). 报王黃世仲. 中囯社会科学出版社 publishing. 978-7-5004-3309-5. Ping-Liu-Li uprising Ma Fuyi (zh 馬福益) and Huaxinghui was involved in an uprising in the areas of Pingxiang, Liuyang, and Liling (zh 萍瀏醴起義) in 1905. The Ping-liu-li Uprising had recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.Judge Joan Print and politics: 'Shibao' and the culture of reform in late Qing China 1996 Stanford University Press 978-0-8047-2741-9 214 Beijing assassination attempt Wu Yue (zh 吳樾) of the Guangfuhui carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station (zh 正陽門車站) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.Wang 1998 287zh:清宮藏辛亥革命檔案公佈 清廷密追孫中山(圖)-新聞中心_中華網 Archives of the 1911 Revolution in the Palace Collection of the Qing Dynasty Released http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html https://web.archive.org/web/20120507065815/http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html 7 May 2012 2011-10-16 China.com zh 1907–1910 Huanggang uprising The Huanggang uprising (zh 黃岡起義) was launched on 22 May 1907, in Chaozhou.張家鳳. (2010). 中山先生與國際人士. Vol. 1. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. 978-9-8622-1510-4. p. 195. The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu (zh 許雪秋), Chen Yongpo (zh 陳湧波), and Yu Tongshi (zh 余通實), launched the uprising and captured the city of Huanggang. After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.27 May 2011 zh:公元1907年5月27日 黄冈起义失败 On May 27, 1907, the Huanggang Uprising failed. http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20120407071949/http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm 7 April 2012 2011-10-16 Baojinews.com zh Qinühu uprising, Huizhou In the same year, Sun sent more revolutionaries to Huizhou to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu uprising" (zh 惠州七女湖起義).zh 張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. (2002). zh 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of zh 中國歷史. zh 五南圖書出版股份有限公司 publishing. 978-9-5711-2898-6. p. 177. On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu (zh-hant 鄧子瑜) and Chen Chuan (zh 陳純) gathered some followers, and together they seized Qing arms in the lake, 20 km from Huizhou.zh 中国二十世紀通鉴编辑委员会. (2002). zh 中国二十世紀通鉴, 1901–2000, Vol. 1. Threadneedle Book Bureau. They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei (zh 泰尾) on 5 June. The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, captured several towns, and defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the revolutionary forces were 200 men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. Anqing uprising thumb|right|upright=0.7|A statue to honor revolutionary Qiu Jin On 6 July 1907, Xu Xilin of Guangfuhui led an uprising in Anqing, Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (zh 安慶起義). Xu, the police commissioner and the supervisor of the police academy, led an uprising that aimed to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming (zh 恩銘).Lu Xun Capturing Chinese Capturing Chinese 2009 978-0-9842762-0-2 51 zh They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them. His cousin Qiu Jin was executed a few days later. Qinzhou uprising From August to September 1907, the Qinzhou uprising occurred (欽州防城起義)鄭連根. (2009). 故紙眉批── 一個傳媒人的讀史心得. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. 978-9-8622-1190-8. p. 135. against heavy taxation by the government. Sun sent Wang Heshun (zh 王和順) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September.辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing. They attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou but eventually had retreat to the area of Shiwandashan. Wang Heshun returned to Vietnam. Zhennanguan uprising On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan uprising (zh 鎮南關起事) took place at Zhennanguan along the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang (zh 黃明堂) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort. With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun, Huang Xing. and Hu Hanmin personally went to the tower to command the battle.中華民國史硏究室. (1986). 中華民國史資料叢稿: 譯稿. Volumes 1–2 of 中華民國史資料叢稿. published by 中華書局. The Qing government sent troops led by Long Jiguang and Lu Rongting to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After the uprising's failure, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to anti-Sun sentiments within the revolutionary groups.Yan, Qinghuang. (2008). The Chinese in Southeast Asia and Beyond: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions. World Scientific Publishing. 978-9-8127-9047-7. pp. 182–187. He returned to the mainland only after the Wuchang Uprising. Qin-Lian uprising On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-Lian-Shangsi uprising (zh 欽廉上思起義), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of Qinzhou and Lianzhou, in Guangdong. The rebels continued for fourteen days but were forced to end after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.廣西壯族自治區地方誌編纂委員會. (1994). 廣西通志: 軍事志. 廣西人民出版社 publishing. Digitized University of Michigan. 2009. Hekou uprising In April 1908, another uprising was launched in Hekou, Yunnan, called the Hekou uprising (zh 雲南河口起義). Huang Mingtang (zh 黃明堂) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other participating revolutionaries included Wang Heshun (zh 王和順) and Guan Renfu (zh 關仁甫). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.中国百科年鉴. (1982). 中国大百科全书出版社. University of California. Digitized 2008. Mapaoying Uprising On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (zh 馬炮營起義) was launched by the revolutionary group Yuewanghui (zh 岳王會), led by Xiong Chenggei (zh 熊成基) in Anhui.汪贵胜, 许祖范. Compiled by 程必定. (1989). 安徽近代经济史. 黄山书社. Digitized by the University of Michigan. 2007. The Yuewanghui joined Tongmenghui. The uprising also failed. 1910–1911 Guangzhou Second Guangzhou Uprising thumb|right|The memorial for the 72 martyrs In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (zh 庚戌新軍起義), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising (zh 廣州新軍起義), took place.张新民. (1993). 中国人权辞书. 海南出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of Michigan. 2009. That involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After the revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, and the uprising failed. On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (zh 辛亥廣州起義) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt (zh 黃花岡之役). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified).王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 5 清. 中華書局. 9-6288-8528-6. pp. 195–198. The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as martyrs. The revolutionary Lin Juemin was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote "A Letter to My Wife" (zh 與妻訣別書), which later became considered a masterpiece in Chinese literature.Langmead Donald Maya Lin Greenwood 2011 978-0-313-37853-9 Santa Barbara, CA 5–6 Wuchang Uprising thumb|The Iron Blood 18-star flag, used during the Wuchang Uprising|250x250px thumb|right|upright=0.6|Paths of the uprising Wuchang Uprising Battle of Yangxia The Literary Society (zh 文學社) and the Progressive Association (zh 共進會) were revolutionary organizations that involved in the uprising that began mainly by a Railway Protection Movement.Wang 1998 390–391 In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers.Reilly, Thomas. (1997). Science and Football III, Vol. 3. Taylor & Francis publishing. 978-0-4192-2160-9. pp. 105–106, 277–278.October 2024 Banner officers like Duanfang, the railway superintendent,Felsing Robert H. https://books.google.com/books?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&q=Duanfang The heritage of Han: the Gelaohui and the 1911 revolution in Sichuan University of Iowa 1979 156 The railway company's chief officer at Yichang was no longer listening to company directives and had turned company accounts over to Duanfang, Superintendent of the Chuan Han and Yue Han railroads. The situation of the Sichuanese 2012-03-02 and Zhao Erfeng led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement. The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official Zhang Zhidong. On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (zh 蔣翊武) and Sun Wu (zh 孫武), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911.王恆偉. [2005] (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 6 民國. 中華書局. 9-6288-8529-4. pp. 3–7. It was postponed because of insufficient preparations. Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one of them accidentally exploded. Sun had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States to recruit more support from overseas Chinese. The Qing Viceroy of Huguang, Rui Cheng (zh 瑞澂), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries.戴逸, 龔書鐸. (2003) 中國通史. 清. Intelligence Press. 9-6287-9289-X. pp. 86–89. The squad leader Xiong Bingkun (zh 熊秉坤) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7:00 p.m. The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang had been captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China". The conference chose Li Yuanhong as the governor of the temporary government. Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces. Revolutionaries killed a German arms dealer in Hankou as he was delivering arms to the Qing.Thomson John Stuart China Revolutionized 1913 2020 Bobbs-Merrill 978-9-3539-7226-4 59 Revolutionaries killed 2 Germans and wounded 2 other Germans at the battle of Hanyang, including a former colonel.Thomson 2020 54 Nationwide uprisings after Wuchang thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some uprisings declared restoration (光復) of Han Chinese rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.September 2014 Regardless of the reason for the uprising, the outcome was that all of the provinces renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the republicans. Hunan Battle of Changsha (1911) On 22 October 1911, the Hunan Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (zh 焦達嶧) and Chen Zuoxin (zh 陳作新).张创新. (2005). 中国政治制度史. 2nd ed., Tsinghua University Press. 978-7-3021-0146-8. p. 377. They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from Hongjiang and defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into Changsha. They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. They announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire. Shaanxi On the same day, the Shaanxi Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (zh 景定成), Qian Ding (zh 錢鼎), and Jing Wumu (zh 井勿幕), and others including the Gelaohui, launched an uprising and captured Xi'an after two days of fighting.zh:武昌起義之後各省響應與國際調停 http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20140521033406/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm 21 May 2014 2011-10-16 zh Xinhua The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries, and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui of Xi'an joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus.Backhouse Edmund https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) Otway John Bland Percy Houghton Mifflin 1914 Repr. 209https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779 The Atlantic Atlantic Monthly 1913 112 779 The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general Ma Anliang led more than twenty battalions of Hui troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui (zh 張鳳翽). The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic.Jonathan N. Lipman Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China University of Washington Press 1998 170 978-0-2959-7644-0 8580403W Seattle The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society (zh 原日知會), as new governor. After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all the Manchus in the city, about 20,000. Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing General Wenrui (zh 文瑞), who threw himself down a well. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves, and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.Rhoads 2017 190–193 Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.Fitzgerald Charles Patrick https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls The Horizon history of China Kotker Norman American Heritage 1969 978-0-8281-0005-2 Kotker Norman Illustrated 365 The Hui General Ma Anliang abandoned the Qing cause upon the Qing abdication in the Xinhai Revolution, and the Manchu governor general Shengyun was enraged at the revolution.Lipman 1998 170 "Ma Anliang attacked Shaanxi successfully, and Yuan Shikai took the invasion seriously enough to alert eastern troops to move against him"Shan Patrick Fuliang https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA201 Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal 2018 University of British Columbia Press 978-0-7748-3781-1 Contemporary Chinese Studies 201 On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ... Pro-revolution Hui Muslims like Shaanxi Governor Ma Yugui and Beijing Imam Wang Kuan persuaded Qing Hui General Ma Anliang to stop fighting by telling him that Muslims should not kill one another for the sake of the Qing monarchists but side with the republican revolutionaries. Ma Anliang then agreed to abandon the Qing under the combination of Yuan Shikai's actions and those messages from other Hui.Israeli Raphael The Muslim Midwest in Modern China: The Tale of the Hui Communities in Gansu (Lanzhou, Linxia, and Lintan) and in Yunnan (Kunming and Dali) 2017 Wipf & Stock 978-1-5326-3754-4 71–72 This message by Wang may have contributed to breaking the resistance of Ma Anliang, who had in any case, come under strong pressure of Yuan Shikai's ...Lipman Jonathan Neaman https://books.google.com/books?id=w8REAQAAIAAJ&q=anliang+yuan+shikai The Border World of Gansu, 1895–1935 Stanford University Press 1980 105, 208–209 ... White Wolf and the 'Hui protector and mediator,' Ma Anliang. When Yuan Shikai died in 1916, Zhang Guangjian's control over Gansu did not decrease.Frankel James Islam in China 2021 Bloomsbury 978-0-7556-3884-0 Islam in Series 93 ... thereupon supporting Yuan Shikai even when he declared himself emperor. Despite their close relationship, when his superior Ma Anliang tried to arrest ...Mühlhahn Klaus Herrschaft und Widerstand in der 'Musterkolonie' Kiautschou: Interaktionen zwischen China und Deutschland, 1897–1914 2014 Walter de Gruyter 978-3-4867-1369-5 Illustrated 8 Studien zur Internationalen Geschichte 399 tierte Yuan Shikai in bezug auf die Boxerbewegung, daß 'Irrlehren (yaoyan) ... Revolte Ruhe und Frieden eintreten können' (chu bao nai ke anliang gaoshi). deMueggler Erik The Paper Road: Archive and Experience in the Botanical Exploration of West China and Tibet 2011 University of California Press 978-0-5202-6902-6 Illustrated 228 When that army's commander, Dong Fuxiang died in 1908, Ma Anliang took control ... To curb the power of these warlords, Yuan Shikai sent his subordinates to ...Jowett Philip China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949 2013 Bloomsbury 978-1-4728-0674-1 Ill. 87 During the Second Revolution in 1913 he was persuaded by the southern Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen to join the anti-Yuan Shikai rebellion.Hamrin Carol Lee Salt and Light, Vol. 1: Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China 2009 Wipf & Stock 978-1-6218-9291-5 Hamrin Carol Lee Studies in Chinese Christianity Yuan Shikai, later to become the first President of the Republic of China, was in charge of foreign affairs (and much else) for this last decade of the ... Bieler StaceyShan Patrick Fuliang Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal University of British Columbia Press 2018 978-0-7748-3781-1 Contemporary Chinese Studies 201 On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ...Dillon Michael China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects Routledge 2013 978-1-1368-0933-0 144 ... poor' and 'Down with Yuan Shikai,' the first president of the new Chinese ... Ma Anliang sent his subordinate Ma Qi to the old town of Taozhou on April ...Sahay R.K. History of China's Military 2016 Vij Books India Pvt 978-9-3860-1990-5 Illustrated ... commanders such as Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and Yuan Shikai. ... Ma Anliang, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Fuxing who commanded the Kansu Braves.June 2025 A year before the massacre of Manchus in October 1911, an oath against them had been sworn at the Great Goose Pagoda in Xi'an by the Gelaohui in 1911.Esherick Joseph W. Accidental Holy Land: The Communist Revolution in Northwest China University of California Press 2022 978-0-5203-8532-0 Illustrated 29, 197 10.1525/luminos.117 244639814 Manchu banner garrisons were slaughtered in Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Taiyuan, Xi'an, Fuzhou and WuchangRhoads 2017 187Li Xue Making Local China: A Case Study of Yangzhou, 1853–1928 LIT Verlag Münster 2018 978-3-6439-0894-0 Berliner China-Studien 56 237Shan Patrick Fuliang Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal University of British Columbia Press 2018 978-0-7748-3781-1 Contemporary Chinese Studies 151Witchard Anne Lao She in London Hong Kong University Press 2012 978-9-8881-3960-6 Illustrated RAS China in Shanghai series of China Monographs 1 18Harper Tim Underground Asia: Global Revolutionaries and the Assault on Empire Harvard University Press 2021 978-0-6747-2461-7 141 The Manchu quarter was located in the northeastern part of Xi'an and walled off, and the Hui Muslim quarter was located in the northwestern part of Xi'an but did not have walls separating it from the Han parts. The southern part of Xi'an was entirely Han.China's Millions, Issues 79–90 Morgan and Scott 1882 113Broomhall Marshall https://books.google.com/books?id=XbB4faUT540C&dq=the+southern+half+of+si-an+fu+is+entirely+chinese,+but+the+northern+is+a+mixture,&pg=PA201 The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Vol. 678–679 Morgan at Scott 1907 The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Marshall Broomhall 201https://books.google.com/books?id=WofBpey7AkEC&q=the+southern+half+of+si-an+fu+is+entirely+chinese,+but+the+northern+is+a+mixture, The Chinese Empire 201https://books.google.com/books?id=MxdCAQAAMAAJ&dq=mohammedan+general+china+si-an&pg=PA18 China's Millions China Inland Mission 1902 28 18October 2024 Xi'an had the biggest Manchu banner garrison quarter by area before its destruction.Schinz Alfred https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcRYkz-I3YC&dq=the+garrisons+at+Xi%E2%80%99an,+Taiyuan,+Zhenjiang&pg=PA354 The Magic Square: Cities in Ancient China Edition Axel Menges 1996 3-9306-9802-1 Ill. 354 On 22 October 1911, the revolutionaries were led by students of the military academy who overcame the guards at the gates of Xi'an and shut them. They secured the arsenal, slaughtered all Manchus at their temple, and then stormed and slaughtered the Manchus in the Manchu banner quarter of the city. The Manchu quarter was set on fire, burning many Manchus alive. Many Manchus had stored gunpowder in their houses, which exploded from the fire and caused even more deaths. For three days, Manchu men, women and children alike were slaughtered. Only after that were Manchu women and girls spared, while Manchu men and boys continued to be slaughtered. Many Manchus committed suicide by overdosing on opium and throwing themselves into wells. It was estimated that between 10,000 and 20,000 Manchus were slaughtered.Borst-Smith Ernest F. https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft/page/n25/mode/2up Caught in the Chinese revolution: a record of risks and rescue T. Fisher Unwin 1912 London 18–21 Ma Anliang was ordered to attack the revolutionaries in Shaanxi by the baoyi bondservant Chang Geng and Manchu Shengyun.Lipman Jonathan Neaman https://books.google.com/books?id=w8REAQAAIAAJ&q=ma+anliang+shengyun The Border World of Gansu, 1895–1935 Stanford University 1980 184 Sheng Yun, a Manchu, and Chang Geng, a life bondservant of the Qing house, agreed that an attack had to be undertaken swiftly, so Ma was... Chang needed the Hui, and that meant trusting the loyalty of Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang.https://books.google.com/books?id=JT9BAQAAMAAJ&q=ma+anliang+shengyun National Review: Zhongguo Gong Lun Xi Bao, Vol. 14 1913 251 ... will enter the Ministry of Commerce which will be A Peking telegram also states that Sheng Yun, the reorganized... where is alleged to be coTsen Chun – hsuan. operating with General Ma An – liang in stirring up The " Peking Jih ... Eastern soldiers of the new republic were mobilized by Yuan Shikai when the attack against Shaanxi began by Ma Anliang, but news of the abdication of the Qing Emperor reached Ma Anliang before he attacked Xi'an. That made Ma end all military operations and change his allegiance to the Republic of China. All pro-Qing military activity in the northwest was then put to an end.Lipman 1998 170 Yuan Shikai managed to induce Ma not to attack Shaanxi after the Gelaohui took over the province and to accept the Republic of China under his presidency in 1912. During the National Protection War in 1916 between republicans and Yuan's monarchy, Ma readied his soldiers and informed the republicans that he and the Muslims would stick to Yuan until the end.Teichman Eric https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/120/mode/2up?view=theater Travels of a Consular officer in North West China; with original maps of Shensi and Kansu and illus. by photographs 1921 Cambridge University Press 120–122 Yuan Shikai ordered Ma Anliang to block Bai Lang (White Wolf) from going into Sichuan and Gansu by blocking Hanzhong and Fengxiangfu.https://books.google.com/books?id=CSo-AQAAMAAJ&q=ma+an+liang+sianfu The National Review, China: Literary and educational supplement, Vol. 15 National Review 1914 482 General Ma An-liang to take his Muhammadan requesting that the disbandment be postponed troops to Fenghsiangfu and... also that all latter reached Sianfu by forced marches from asking for information regarding the statements .... The Protestant Shensi mission operated a hospital in Xian.Keyte J. C. https://archive.org/download/MN41760ucmf_1/MN41760ucmf_1.pdf Andrew Young of Shensi :Adventure in Medical Missions The Carey Press 1924 London vi Some American missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an.Thomson 2020 64 A report claimed Manchus massacred missionaries in the suburbs of Xi'an.Thomson 2020 46 Missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an and Taiyuan.Thomson 2020 53 Shaanxi joined the revolution on October 24.Thomson 2020 37 On October 24th, ancient Singan the capital of the northwestern province of Shensi, the original capital of China, where the empress dowager, Tse Hsi Sheng Yun was governor of Shaanxi in 1905.https://books.google.com/books?id=JSlCAQAAMAAJ&dq=mohammedan+shen-si+shengyun&pg=PA206 Japan Weekly Mail 1905 206 That degradation of H. E. Sheng Yun, Governor of Shensi, a Peking correspondent, writing about the recent was delayed some three hours. A telegram was received on Feb. 18th in Japanese adventurers should be serving with to ihe post ...Lipman 1998 263Thomson 2020 71, 449 Some Gansu Hui, led by Ma Fuxiang, joined the republicans. General Ma Fuxiang did not participate with Ma Anliang in the battles with Shaanxi revolutionaries and refused to join the Qing Manchu Shengyun and Changgeng in their attempts to defend the Qing before their abdication, but the independence of Gansu from Qing control was jointly declared by non-Muslim gentry with Hui Muslim Ma Fuxiang.Lipman 1998 171–172 Jiangxi thumb|Flag used by naval fleet during the Jiujiang Uprising中華民國海軍 – 旗海圖幟 https://www.globalflag.idv.tw/wg/haijun.htm 2024-05-19October 2024|250x250px On 23 October, Lin Sen, Jiang Qun (zh 蔣群), Cai Hui (zh 蔡蕙), and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of Jiangxi plotted a revolt of New Army units.伍立杨. (2011). 中国1911 (辛亥年). 978-7-5313-3869-7. Chapter 连锁反应 各省独立. A Qing naval fleet also revolted against the state, which solidified victory in the Wuchang Uprising.zh:辛亥革命中的九江起义(3) http://www.xhgmw.com/html/xiezhen/licheng/2014/0715/593_3.html 2024-05-19 xhgmw.com zh After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.章开沅、林增平 辛亥革命史 2010 东方出版中心 9787547301234 2010 Late at night on October 30, the 54th Regiment of the New Army stationed in Nanchang rose in revolt. Students of the city's Army Primary School and Surveying School coordinated with them, opening the city gates to let the New Army in. The garrison troops, patrol forces, and naval units within Nanchang all raised white flags in response, and the revolutionaries thereupon took control of the city.1031 On November 1, the Tongmenghui convened a meeting of representatives from all sectors at the provincial chamber of commerce in the Wanshou Palace on Hetong Lane, issued a telegraphic declaration of Jiangxi's independence, and elected Wu Jiezhang, commander of the New Army's 27th Mixed Brigade, as military governor (dudu). On the 2nd, Wu took office as military governor, establishing the military government at the Higher School.南昌市史志办公室 辛亥革命南昌光复 http://ncszb.nc.gov.cn/news/show-839.html 南昌史志 2022-08-27 2022-08-28 https://web.archive.org/web/20220828020948/http://ncszb.nc.gov.cn/news/show-839.html live Beyond the provincial capital, Yuanzhou, Ruizhou, Linjiang, Poyang, and other localities went over to the revolution one after another, each installing its own military governor. Subsequently, the seal of the Jiangxi military governor changed hands three times (Wu Jiezhang, Peng Chengwan, Ma Yubao); order was only restored later when the Nanjing Provisional Government dispatched Tongmenghui member Li Liejun to take over the post.1032 To address the panic among the local Banner population, the Jiangxi military government, in answering a Banner resident named Zhang who had inquired about the aims of the revolution, had Zhang Zongjie, the head of its law-enforcement section, explain that this was a political revolution, not a racial one; that if the Banner people submitted in good faith they could still reside where they were, and that Han Bannermen could each return to their native places, all to be treated equally and afforded protection. He also issued Zhang a permit, instructing him to survey the Banner population's households so that a new register could be compiled.中国社会科学院近代史研究所政治史研究室编 清代满汉关系研究 January 2011 社会科学文献出版社 9787509725917 2011530 Shanxi On 29 October, Yan Xishan of the New Army led an uprising in Taiyuan, the capital city of the province of Shanxi.蒋顺兴, 李良玉. (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990. The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907–1985 102 They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (zh 陸鍾琦).zh:山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml https://web.archive.org/web/20120405102736/http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml 5 April 2012 2011-10-16 Big5.xhgmw.org zh They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor. Yunnan On 30 October, Li Genyuan (zh 李根源) of the Tongmenghui in Yunnan joined with Cai E, Luo Peijin (zh 羅佩金), Tang Jiyao, and other officers of the New Army to launch the Double Ninth Uprising (zh 重九起義).中共湖南省委員會. (1981). 新湘評論, Issues 7–12. 新湘評論雜誌社. They captured Kunming the next day, established the Yunnan Military Government, and chose Cai E as the military governor. Shanghai thumb|right|upright=0.7|Chen Qimei, military governor of Shanghai On 3 November, the Shanghai Tongmenghui and Guangfuhui and merchants led by Chen Qimei, Li Pingsu (zh 李平書), Zhang Chengyou (zh 張承槱), Li Yingshi (zh 李英石), Li Xiehe (zh 李燮和), and Song Jiaoren organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai. They received support from local police officers. The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon afterward. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor. He would eventually become one of the founders of the four big families of the Republic of China, along with some of the most well-known families of the era.zh:"四大家族"后人:蒋家凋零落寞 宋、孔、陈家低调 http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml 2011-10-16 Chinanews.com.cn zh Guizhou On 4 November, Zhang Bailin (zh 張百麟) of the revolutionary party in Guizhou led an uprising, along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured Guiyang, established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, and chose Yang Jincheng (zh 楊藎誠) and Zhao Dequan (zh 趙德全) as respectively the chief and vice governor.张玉法, 中央硏究院. 近代史硏究所. (1985). 民国初年的政党. 中央硏究院近代史硏究所 Publishing. Zhejiang Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in Zhejiang urged the New Army units in Hangzhou to launch an uprising. Zhu Rui (zh 朱瑞), Wu Siyu (zh 吳思豫), Lu Gongwang (zh 吕公望) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop. Other units, led by Chiang Kai-shek and Yin Zhirei (zh 尹銳志), captured most of the government offices. Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian (zh 湯壽潛) was chosen as the military governor. Jiangsu On 5 November, the Jiangsu constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing Governor Cheng Dequan (zh 程德全) to declare independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor.zh:辛亥百年蘇州光復一根竹竿挑瓦革命 http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20140521034915/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm 21 May 2014 2011-10-16 zh Xinhua Unlike some other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in Zhenjiang. Qing General Zaimu (zh 載穆) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed. The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed. Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide.Rhoads 2017 194 This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising (zh 鎮江起義).zh:辛亥革命大事記_時政頻道_新華網 http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20140521034919/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm 21 May 2014 2011-11-17 Xinhua News Agencyzh:温馨提示 http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm zh thumb|1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanjing. Painting by Tanaka Ryōzō (田中良三) On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (zh 徐紹楨) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass (zh 秣陵關), 30 km away from Nanjing. Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanjing together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang. Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan (zh 烏龍山), Mufushan (zh 幕府山)), Yuhuatai (zh 雨花臺)), Tianbao (zh 天保城)) among other Qing army strongholds. On 2 December, Nanjing was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanjing. On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus. Shortly afterward, he was arrested, and his troops were disbanded.Rhoads 2017 198 Anhui Members of the Anhui Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded Zhu Jiabao, the Qing governor of Anhui, to declare independence.國立臺灣師範大學. 歷史學系. (2003). Bulletin of historical research, Issue 31. 國立臺灣師範大學歷史學系 publishing. Guangxi On 7 November, the Guangxi political department decided to secede from the Qing government and declared Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (zh 沈秉堃) was allowed to remain, but Lu Rongting soon became the new governor. Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the Warlord Era, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.Lary Diana Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers 1911–1937 Cambridge University Press 2010 978-0-521-13629-7 64 Under leadership of Huang Shaohong, the Muslim law student Bai Chongxi was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.Boorman Howard L. https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor Biographical Dictionary of Republican China Howard Richard C. Cheng Joseph K. H. Columbia University Press 1967 978-0-2310-8957-9 51 pai ch'ung-hsi dare to die. registration Fujian thumb|right|One of the old buildings occupied by the Guangfuhui in Lianjiang County, Fujian In November, members of Fujian's branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (zh 孫道仁) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army.国祁李. (1990). 民国史论集, Volume 2. 南天書局 publishing.(1979). 傳記文學, Volume 34. 傳記文學雜誌社 Publishing. University of Wisconsin– Madison. Digitized 11 April 2011. The Qing viceroy, Song Shou (zh 松壽), committed suicide.Deng Zhicheng Zhonghua shuju 1988 978-7-101-00390-1 5 Beijing zh zh:中華二千年史 Deng Zhicheng (鄧之誠). (1983), Volume 5, Part 3, Issue 1. 中華書局. 978-7-1010-0390-1. On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence. The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was chosen as the military governor. Guangdong Near the end of October, Chen Jiongming, Deng Keng (zh 鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (zh 彭瑞海), and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in Huazhou, Nanhai, Sunde and Sanshui in Guangdong Province.广东省中山图书馆. (2002). 民国广东大事记. 羊城晚报出版社 Publishing. 978-7-8065-1206-7. On 8 November, after being persuaded by Hu Hanmin, General Li Zhun (zh 李準) and Long Jiguang (zh 龍濟光) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution. The Qing viceroy of Liangguang, Zhang Mingqi (zh 張鳴岐), was forced to discuss with local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence. They decided to declare it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured Huizhou. On 9 November, Guangdong declared its independence and established a military government.徐博东, 黄志萍. (1987). 丘逢甲傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. 978-9-8622-1636-1. p. 175. They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as Chief and Vice-Governor.居正, 羅福惠, 蕭怡. (1989). 居正文集, Volume 1. 華中師範大學出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of California. 15 December 2008. Qiu Fengjia is known to have helped make the declaration of independence more peaceful. It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of Hong Kong and Macau would be ceded to the new government.August 2017 Shandong thumb|200px|Xu Jingxin (1874–1914), a native from Huang County and the provincial head of Tongmenghui, played a vital role in the revolution in Shandong. After Yuan Shikai seized power, Xu was captured and murdered in Beijing thumb|Situation in Shandong in the late 1911: #F0D97A Qing government–controlled areas #E7CB68 Revolutionary party concentration areas within Qing government–control #EB586A Self-declared independent areas after Yantai's independence #EFB6F4 Areas responding to Yantai's declaration of independence #8A8A8A Foreign colonies (Weihaiwei and Kiautschou) #56B3A8 Fushan County #7BE0D2 Wendeng County #79D6D1 Dengzhou Prefecture #C6F0EB Huang County #A8FFE1 Ninghai Subprefecture #E6FAF8 Rongcheng County On November 12, 1911, members of the Tongmenghui in Yantai, Shandong, including Luan Zhongyao (欒鍾堯) and Gong Xide (宮錫德)—collectively known as the "Eighteen Heroes"—launched an uprising and seized the Yantai Coastal Defense Battalion. Upon learning of the revolt, the Yantai Circuit Intendant Xu Shiguang fled with his family to seek protection at the residence of the British official, head of the Donghai Customs (東海關稅務司). On November 13, the "Eighteen Heroes" sent a telegram to the Shanghai Military Governor Chen Qimei, declaring Yantai's independence and announcing the establishment of the Shandong Military Government. The following day, it was renamed the Shandong–Yantai Military and Political Sub-Administration, and Wang Chuanjiong, captain of the Qing Navy warship Wufeng, was elected commander-in-chief of the Yantai Military and Political Sub-Administration.http://www.ytdsw.gov.cn/news.asp?id=1187&state=show&lmid1=302&lmid2=349 Local History of the CCP in Yantai, Volume 1, Part 1 2010-04-13 2010-12-15 https://web.archive.org/web/20101215142047/http://www.ytdsw.gov.cn/news.asp?id=1187&state=show&lmid1=302&lmid2=349 liveThis claim needs references to sources which can independently confirm it. January 2026 On November 13, under the persuasion of the Shandong revolutionary Ding Weifen (丁惟汾) and coercion from some officers, including acting commander Jia Binqing of the Fifth New Army Division, the Governor of Shandong Sun Baoqi agreed to declare Shandong's independence and was elected military governor. On November 24, however, Sun Baoqi again rescinded the declaration of independence under pressure from the Fifth New Army Division. Yuan Shikai ordered Zhang Guangjian to be promoted from sub-prefectural magistrate to provincial administration commissioner, and Wu Bingxiang to be promoted from reserve assistant magistrate to commissioner of police affairs. They launched a crackdown on revolutionaries, ordering police to erase all street posters bearing the slogan "Over four thousand years since the Yellow Emperor" and replace them with notices bearing the reign year of Xuantong.一百年前,"山东独立"11天(组图)——中新网 https://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/2011/08-09/3244145.shtml 2026-06-15 www.chinanews.com.cn On the morning of December 10, Wu Bingxiang dispatched military police to conduct a sudden raid on the "Yichun Studio", a photography studio and clock-repair shop on the south side of the western end of Jing’er Road, in the Jinan commercial district, as well as the "Wanshunheng" foreign-goods shop on Wanzi Alley. Fourteen revolutionaries, including Liu Pulin and Du Jin, were arrested. Lan Shengjiu was beaten to death on the spot with rifle butts, and property from both shops was looted. This incident is historically known as the Yichun Studio Massacre.Sun Fang, Liu Ping Sun Baoqi and the Shandong Independence Movement of the Xinhai Revolution from the Perspective of the History of Mentalities http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/ztyjzz/2013-03-08/33419.shtml#_edn38 National Qing History Compilation Committee 2022-09-24 2022-09-24 https://web.archive.org/web/20220924215644/http://www.historychina.net/qsyj/ztyj/ztyjzz/2013-03-08/33419.shtml#_edn38 liveThe current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). January 2026 Ningxia On 17 November, the Ningxia Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia uprising (zh 寧夏會黨起義). The revolutionaries sent Yu Youren to Zhangjiachuan to meet the Dungan Sufi master Ma Yuanzhang to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern Gansu Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help Ma Qi fight the Ningxia Gelaohui.7625604W Travels of a Consular Officer in North-West China Cambridge University Press Archive 1921 188 ma fu hsiang mongol an-liang.Lipman 1998 182–183 Ma Anliang, Changgeng, and Shengyun failed to capture Shaanxi from the revolutionaries. In Ningxia, Qing forces were attacked by both Hui Muslim Gelaohui and Han Gelaohui members, and Hui General Ma Qi and Ma Yuanzhang were in the Qing forces fighting against them, Hoverver, Ma Yuanzhang defected to the republicans after Ma Anliang had given up on the Qing.Lipman 1998 181–182 However, the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November. Some revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue (zh 黃鉞) and Xiang Shen (zh 向燊), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou (zh 秦州).粟戡时, 同明, 志盛, 雪云. (1981). 湖南反正追记. 湖南人民出版社.辛亥革命史地圖集. (1991). 辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. 中國地圖出版社. Liaoning On November 6, 1911, revolutionaries including Lan Tianwei held a meeting at the North Barracks to work out how to expel Zhao Erxun, the Viceroy of the Three Northeastern Provinces. Owing to a lapse in vigilance, they were betrayed by Li Hexiang, a battalion commander under Lan Tianwei. Zhao Erxun, who was on an inspection tour in Heilongjiang, learned of this and immediately hurried back to Shenyang, ordering martial law throughout the city. On the afternoon of November 12, Zhao Erxun convened the inaugural meeting of the "Fengtian Citizens' Public Security Association" at the provincial advisory council. Zhang Zuolin took control of the venue by force, and Zhao Erxun was elected president, Wu Xiangzhen, commander of the Qing army's 39th Brigade, vice-president, and Zhang Zuolin deputy head of the military affairs department. Branch associations were set up in localities across the province as prescribed, in order to keep the situation under control. The 2,500 men of Zhang Zuolin's patrol battalions moved into the provincial capital in succession. To counter this, on November 17 Zhang Rong, Zhang Genren, and others made contact with various sectors of Liaoning society and founded the "Fengtian United Radical Advance Society".王意恒 辛亥革命在辽宁——纪念辛亥革命一百周年 http://lntldsw.com/news/706.html 铁岭党史网 《党史纵横》2011年第十期 2022-09-30 2022-10-02 https://web.archive.org/web/20221002183536/http://lntldsw.com/news/706.html live On November 20, Gu Renyi led the people's army in an attack on the Qing patrol force stationed at Lijia Wolong, winning the first engagement. On November 27, the insurgent army proclaimed the establishment of the "Republic of China Military Government Sub-Bureau". On November 29, Gu Renyi's forces attacked the patrol force stationed at Shuimenzi, winning again. At this point, since the situation nationwide was still unclear, Zhao Erxun employed suppression and conciliation together: on the one hand he applied pressure with cavalry, infantry, and artillery units, and on the other he entered into negotiations with the insurgent army. Gu Renyi accepted ten thousand taels of silver in military funds and, on the condition that he not surrender military command, reorganized the people's army into a local patrol force. But after Feng Guozhang captured Hanyang on November 27, Zhao Erxun felt free to suppress the revolution in earnest, and on January 23, 1912, he sent Yuan Jinkai to assassinate Zhang Rong, leader of the Radical Advance Society; more than a hundred others were subsequently killed as well. At the end of January 1912, Lan Tianwei, acting on orders from the Republican government, deployed three troop transport ships to set out for Huayuankou. From the night of February 1 into the morning of the 2nd, the main Northern Expedition force landed in the area of Pizihu, Huayuankou, and Dagushan, with Lan Tianwei going to Dalian to direct operations. On February 3, the Northern Expedition army fought a fierce battle against the Qing patrol force north of Huayuankou and won. On February 4, they fought the Qing army at Shuimenzi and captured Li Zirui, deputy commander of the patrol force, and battalion commander Chen Baoshan. On the 6th, the Northern Expedition army occupied Wafangdian. On February 10, they took Zhuanghe, and the Qing army fled in defeat. Just as the Northern Expedition army and the people's army were preparing to take Shenyang, the Qing emperor issued an edict of abdication on February 12. Sichuan On 21 November, Guang'an organized the Great Han Shu Northern Military Government.中國地圖出版社. (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing. On 22 November, Chengdu and Sichuan declared independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government had been established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (zh 蒲殿俊). The Qing official Duanfang would also be killed. Xinjiang Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang In Xinjiang on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (zh 劉先俊) and revolutionaries started the Dihua Uprising (zh 迪化起義).Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica 1993 978-957-671-150-3 Taipei zh zh:近代中國歷史人物論文集 This was led by more than 100 members of Gelaohui.zh:新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml dead https://web.archive.org/web/20200324093710/http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml 24 March 2020 2011-10-23 Hkcna.hk zh This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the Yili Uprising (zh 伊犁起義) with Feng Temin zh 馮特民 began. Qing governor Yuan Dahua zh 袁大化 (袁大化) fled and submitted his resignation to Yang Zengxin because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.Millward James A. Eurasian Crossroads Columbia University Press 2007 978-0-231-13924-3 New York 168, 440 On 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries. Some Chinese historians now believe that contributed to the Qing dynasty's fall because it prevented the Qing's plan to flee to the west.Oct 7, 2011 Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang: Qing Dynasty's plan of moving westward shattered http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2011/10-07/3370038.shtml China News Service The revolutionaries would be defeated at Jinghe in January and February;Forbes Andrew D. W. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=yuan+ta-hua+time&pg=PA139 Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 Cambridge University Press Archive 1986 978-0-5212-5514-1 376 28 June 2010 Eventually, the abdication to come would make Yuan Shikai recognize Yang Zengxin's rule and appoint him Governor of Xinjiang, and the province join the republicans. Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in Zhenxi, Karashahr, Aksu, Kucha, Luntai, and Kashgar in April and May 1912. The revolutionaries printed new multilingual media.Klimeš Ondřej https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&q=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88&pg=PA83 Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c. 1900–1949 Brill 2015 978-9-0042-8809-6 83ff Reactions outside China proper thumb|Map of Qing China in 1820, before the cession of Outer Manchuria and Taiwan. Traditional China proper (also known as the Eighteen Provinces) is labelled in a deeper tone, whereas the exterior territories administered through the Lifan Yuan lie outside it. Owing to the wave of immigration in the late 19th century, Northeastern China became overwhelmingly Han-populated and was incorporated into provinces, thereby following the same political current as China proper during the 1911 Revolution. Under the Qing, the emperor's authority over Tibet and Mongolia rested on relationships distinct from his rule over China proper. The Manchu monarch ruled the Mongols as a successor to the Great Khans (Bogda Khan), and was tied to Tibet through the priest-patron (mchod-yon) relationship between the imperial house and the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, being regarded in Tibetan Buddhist tradition as an emanation of the bodhisattva Manjushri. Because these bonds were often understood as personal to the dynasty rather than to the Chinese state, the fall of the Qing in 1911–1912 was interpreted by leaders in Lhasa and Urga as dissolving their allegiance, and both Tibet and Outer Mongolia moved to assert independence from the new republic. Tibet Xinhai Lhasa turmoil Tibet (1912–1951) The Qing sent Zhao Erfeng to Tibet to fight the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion.Blondeau Anne-Marie Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions Buffetrille Katia Jing Wei University of California Press 2008 978-0-5202-4464-1 230 By 1908, Zhao was appointed imperial resident in Lhasa. Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-Republican forces.Grunfeld A. Tom. The Making of Modern Tibet M. E. Sharpe 1996 978-1-5632-4714-9 2nd 63 The bulk of the area historically known as Kham was now claimed to be the Xikang Administrative District, created by the republican revolutionaries.Ma Rong Population and Society in Contemporary Tibet Hong Kong University Press 2011 978-962-209-202-0 48 By the end of 1912, the last Qing troops had been forced out of Tibet through India. Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, returned to Tibet in January 1913 from Sikkim, where he had been residing. When the new Chinese government apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied that he was not interested in Chinese ranks, Tibet had never been subordinated to China, Tibet was an independent country, and he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet. That has many read the reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet was free of interference from China until 1951. Tibet is still ruled by China.Mayhew Bradley Tibet Kohn Michael St. Martin's 2005 1-74059-523-8 32 Xinjiang Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang In Xinjiang on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (zh 劉先俊) and revolutionaries started the Dihua Uprising (zh 迪化起義).Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica 1993 978-957-671-150-3 Taipei zh zh:近代中國歷史人物論文集 This was led by more than 100 members of Gelaohui.zh:新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml dead https://web.archive.org/web/20200324093710/http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml 24 March 2020 2011-10-23 Hkcna.hk zh This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the Yili Uprising (zh 伊犁起義) with Feng Temin zh 馮特民 began. Qing governor Yuan Dahua zh 袁大化 (袁大化) fled and submitted his resignation to Yang Zengxin because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.Millward James A. Eurasian Crossroads Columbia University Press 2007 978-0-231-13924-3 New York 168, 440 On 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries. Some Chinese historians now believe that contributed to the Qing dynasty's fall because it prevented the Qing's plan to flee to the west. The revolutionaries would be defeated at Jinghe in January and February;Forbes Andrew D. W. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=yuan+ta-hua+time&pg=PA139 Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 Cambridge University Press Archive 1986 978-0-5212-5514-1 376 28 June 2010 Eventually, the abdication to come would make Yuan Shikai recognize Yang Zengxin's rule and appoint him Governor of Xinjiang, and the province join the republicans. Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in Zhenxi, Karashahr, Aksu, Kucha, Luntai, and Kashgar in April and May 1912. The revolutionaries printed new multilingual media. Outer Mongolia Mongolian Revolution of 1911 Bogd Khanate of Mongolia At the end of 1911, Outer Mongolia took action with an armed revolt against Qing authorities but was unsuccessful. The independence movement that took place was not limited to Outer Mongolia but was a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.Onon Urgungge Asia's First Modern Revolution Pritchatt Derrick Brill 978-90-04-08390-5 Leiden 38–40, 79 1989 On 29 December 1911, Bogd Khan became the ruler of the Bogd Khanate. Inner Mongolia became a contested terrain between the Bogd Khanate and China.Seminar International Association for Tibetan Studies. The Mongolia-Tibet Interface Brill 2007 978-90-04-15521-3 Leiden bo The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia In general, Russia supported the independence of Outer Mongolia (including Tannu Uriankhai) during the 1911 Revolution.Zhao Suisheng Chinese Foreign Policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior 2004 M. E. Sharpe 978-0-7656-1284-7 Armonk, NY 207 Tibet and Outer Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. In 1919, the Republic of China regained Outer Mongolia but lost it again in 1921. China, a member of the United Nations, has officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia since 1949. Taiwan opened a cultural representative office and economy as part of its recognition of Mongolia in 2002.October 2022 Tannu Uriankhai thumb|Map of Uryankhay Republic in 1911 Tannu Uriankhai In February 1912, Gombo-Dorzhu (ru Комбу-Доржу), the banner governor (總管) holding the rank of deputy lieutenant-general of Tannu Banner, declared the independence of the three banners under his authority and established the Uryankhay Republic. Claiming to have been chosen as the leader of an independent Uriankhai, he—together with Buyan-Badyrgy (ru Буян-Бадыргы), the governor of Khemchik Banner (Хемчик кожууну)-submitted a petition to Russia, requesting that Russia send troops to protect the region and prevent it from once again falling under Chinese control. The noyans of the other two banners, however, preferred to join the Mongolian Bogd Khanate. The policy of the Russian cabinet was to expand its influence and gradually absorb the region, and—fearing that hasty action would provoke China—it did not respond to Gombo-Dorzhu's request.N.P. Leonov, Tannu Tuva (Moscow, 1927), p. 42. In 1912, Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, used attacks on Russian settlers as a pretext to send troops into Tannu Uriankhai, and the twenty-seven sumu of the central region were all occupied by Russian forces. In the Uriankhai territory belonging to the Erut Beise Banner of the Sain Noyon Khan Aimag, "after the Xinhai Revolution the Russians expelled the beise and arbitrarily appointed a lama named Chymba (ru Чымба) as governor, placing seventeen sumu under his administration",金玲 唐努乌梁海五旗历任总管新考 《西域文史》 June 2017 第十一辑 https://www.sohu.com/a/401840394_632473 2024-08-14 2024-08-14 https://web.archive.org/web/20240814015343/https://www.sohu.com/a/401840394_632473 live which was also known as the "Beise Banner" (Бээзи кожууну). In the autumn of 1913, the noyans of the other two banners changed their stance and likewise submitted a petition to Russia, seeking incorporation into Russia. In April 1914, the Uryankhay Republic formally accepted the protection of the Russian Empire, becoming the Uriankhai Krai.Istoriya Tuvy [History of Tuva], v. 1, pp. 354–355. The government of the Russian Empire appointed a commissioner of affairs to administer the region; in 1915, it further declared that Russia's civil code, criminal code, and various other legal codes would all apply to Uriankhai Krai. Change of government thumb|right|Presidential seal of the provisional government of the Republic of China North: Qing Court final reform attempt On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as Prime Minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing Prince Qing.Rhoads 2017 183 On 3 November, after a proposition by Cen Chunxuan from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (China) Constitutional Monarchy Movement zh 立憲運動, the Qing court passed the Nineteen Articles, which turned the Qing from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy.Tung William L. The Political Institutions of Modern China Springer 1968 978-90-247-0552-8 18Rhoads 2017 228 On 9 November, Huang Xing even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic.Pomerantz-Zhang Linda Wu Tingfang (1842–1922) Hong Kong University Press 1992 978-962-209-287-7 207–209 The changes were too late, and the Emperor was about to be forced to abdicate. South: Provisional Government in Nanking Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912) On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and Hanyang had fallen back to the Qing army. For their safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British Concession in Hankou on 30 November.Liew K. S. Struggle for Democracy University of California Press Berkeley 1971 978-0-520-01760-3 131–136 By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to capture Nanking in the uprising; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.Wu Yuzhang Recollections of the Revolution of 1911 Minerva Honolulu 2001 978-0-89875-531-2 132 At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital. North–South Conference thumb|right|Tang Shaoyi (left), Edward Selby Little (middle), and Wu Tingfang (right) On 18 December, the North–South Conference zh 南北議和 was held in Shanghai to discuss issues in the north and the south.李雲漢. (1996). 中國近代史. 三民書局 publishing. 978-9-5714-0669-5. The reluctance of foreign financiers to give financial support to the Qing government or the revolutionaries contributed to both sides agreeing to start negotiations.Moazzin Ghassan 2020 Investing in the New Republic: Multinational Banks, Political Risk, and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/investing-in-the-new-republic-multinational-banks-political-risk-and-the-chinese-revolution-of-1911/AFBD8E1FD66001F37563AC1ADEF44ED9 Business History Review 94 3 507–534 10.1017/S0007680520000276 0007-6805 229609499 subscription Yuan Shikai selected Tang Shaoyi as his representative. Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries. The revolutionaries chose Wu Tingfang. With the intervention of six foreign powers (the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Russia, Japan, and France), Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British concession.中央硏究院近代史硏究所. (1971). 中央硏究院近代史硏究所集刊, Volume 2. Digitized on 2 August 2007 from the University of California. The foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (zh 李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement.存萃學社. 周康燮. (1971). 辛亥革命研究論集: 1895–1929, Vol. 1. 崇文書店 publishing. Digitized on 16 August 2007 by the University of Michigan. They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of him as President of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the Emperor rule over his small court in the New Summer Palace. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million taels in silver.Feng Youlan The Hall of Three Pines University of Hawaiʻi Press 2000 978-0-8248-2220-0 Honolulu 45 Denis C. Mair Establishment of the Republic of China Proclamation of the ROC thumb|left|Sun Yat-sen and other members of the Government of the Republic of China visited the mausoleum of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty, 15 February 1912 thumb|right|Five Races Under One Union flags flying over Nanjing Road in Shanghai On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected as the first provisional president, and 1 January 1912 was set as the first day of the First Year of the Republic of China.Welland Sasha Su-Ling A Thousand Miles of Dreams Rowman & Littlefield 2007 978-0-7425-5314-9 87 On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the Provisional Vice-president.Yu Weichao Yu. (1997). A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty. Vol. 4. Morning Glory Publishers. 978-7-5054-0514-1.https://www.thinkchina.sg/history/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution-pictorial-journey Sun Yat-sen and the Xinhai Revolution: A pictorial journey ThinkChina.sg 29 June 2026 During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with a taijitu.Fitzgerald John Awakening China Stanford University Press 1996 978-0-8047-3337-3 180 Others in competition included Lu Haodong's Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. Huang Xing preferred a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of Five Races Under One Union. The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. 9-6207-5316-X. pp. 92–93 The red represented Han, the yellow represented Manchus, the blue for Mongols, the white for Muslims, and the black for Tibetans. Although the general targets of the uprisings were the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing advocated racial integration to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.Lin Hsiao-ting Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers Taylor & Francis 2011 978-0-415-58264-3 London 7 Donghuamen Incident On 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan was ambushed in a bomb attack that was organized by the Tongmenghui in Donghuamen zh 東華門, Beijing.邵建. (2008). 胡適前傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. 978-9-8622-1008-6. p. 236. Eighteen revolutionaries were involved. About ten guards died, but Yuan himself was not seriously injured. He sent a message to the revolutionaries the next day that pledged his loyalty and asked them to organize no more assassination attempts against him. Abdication of the Emperor Puyi#Abdication Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor thumb|right|upright=1.3|Imperial edict for the abdication Zhang Jian drafted an abdication proposal, which was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, Wu Tingfang of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the Imperial Edict of Abdication to Yuan Shikai for the abdication of Puyi.Rhoads 2017 228 On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the Emperor's abdication.Boorman Howard L. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China Columbia University Press 1967 978-0-231-08957-9 3 New York Yuan then pressured Empress Dowager Longyu and threatened that the imperial family would be killed if the abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but he stated that if the Emperor agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family. On 3 February, Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.Rhoads 2017 228 His version had three, instead of two, sections.Rhoads 2017 228 On 12 February, after they were pressured by Yuan and other ministers, the six-year-old Puyi and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication. Capital location debate History of Beijing As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan, Sun insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 for making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin. The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing. Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would prevent restoration of the Manchus and the secession of the Mongols. However, Sun and Huang Xing argued for Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north. Li Yuanhong presented Wuhan as a compromise. The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time 19–6, for Nanjing, with two votes for Wuhan. Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing. Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south. Then on the evening of 29 February, riots and fires broke out all over the city. They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of Cao Kun, an officer loyal to Yuan. The disorder gave Yuan a pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the Provisional President of the Republic of China. On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month.zh:温馨提示 https://dnspod.qcloud.com/static/webblock.html?d%3Dwww.xinhai.org 2021-12-30 dnspod.qcloud.com zh Government established in Beijing Beiyang government Yuan took the power thumb|right|Yuan Shikai swearing in as the Provisional President in Beijing On 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.Fu, Zhengyuan. (1993). Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics: Zhengyuan Fu. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-5214-4228-2. p. 154. The first National Assembly election took place according to the Provisional Constitution. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.Hsueh Chun-tu Huang Hsing and the Chinese Revolution 1961 978-0-8047-0031-3 Hsueh, Chun-tu. Xue, Jundu. (1961). Huang Hsing and the Chinese revolution. Stanford University Press. 978-0-8047-0031-3. The Nationalists held the majority of seats after the election. Song Jiaoren was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913 under a secret order by Yuan.Fu Zhengyuan Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics Cambridge University Press 1993 978-0-521-44228-2 153–154 On April 1, Sun Yat-sen was relieved of office in Nanjing. On April 2, the Provisional Senate resolved to move the Provisional Government to Beijing. On April 4, the Provisional Senate resolved to relocate itself to Beijing, and it adjourned on April 8. On April 29, the Beijing Provisional Senate held its opening ceremony. On May 1, the Senate held a new election for its speakership, electing Wu Jinglian as Speaker and Tang Hualong as Deputy Speaker. In May, the Beijing Provisional Senate deliberated on the case for unifying the national flag. On May 14, the Provisional Senate resolved that the Five-Colored Flag would be the national flag; that the Eighteen-Star Flag placed in the upper-left corner occupying one quarter of the Five-Colored Flag would be the army flag; and that the Blue Sky with a White Sun flag placed in the upper-left corner occupying one quarter of the Five-Colored Flag would be the navy flag, with the merchant flag following the national, army, and navy flags. When this case was submitted to Yuan Shikai, Yuan proposed that the Eighteen-Star Flag still serve as the army flag and the Blue Sky with a White Sun flag as the navy flag; this was passed by the Provisional Senate on June 5. On June 11, the case was promulgated and put into effect by Yuan Shikai through a Provisional Presidential Decree.Li Xuezhi, "The Dispute over the National Flag in the First Year of the Republic," Journal of Historical Science 1998 (01), pp. 46–50. Recognition from foreign countries 中華民國外交#中華民國與各國建交斷交大事紀 After the Wuchang Uprising, the foreign powers with major interests in China adopted a wait-and-see attitude, seeking to identify which faction—within either the Beijing government or the Wuchang government—would best serve their respective interests and thus merit their support. On April 8, 1913, the first popularly elected National Assembly of the Republic of China was formally inaugurated, and Brazil became the first to officially recognize the Republic of China on that very day, with other countries following suit.《宋教仁：中國民主憲政的先驅》 吳相湘 1985-09-15 傳記文學出版社 新版 台北227 On April 9, 1913, Peru; on May 2, Mexico; and on May 4, Cuba recognized the Republic of China. On May 2, 1913, the United States was the first among the great powers to recognize the Republic of China. On October 7, 1913, thirteen countries—United Kingdom, France, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Denmark, and Sweden—simultaneously announced their recognition of the Republic of China. Proposed Han monarchy Some advocated that an ethnic Han be installed as Emperor of China, either a descendant of Confucius who held the noble title of the Duke of YanshengWoodhouse Eiko https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&pg=PA113 The Chinese Hsinhai Revolution: G. E. Morrison and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1897–1920 Routledge 2004 978-1-1343-5242-5 113ffSpence Jonathan D. Jonathan Spence https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84 The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution Penguin 1982 978-1-1011-7372-5 84 Google BooksHu Shêng https://books.google.com/books?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years Liu Danian New World 1983 55 Google Bookshttps://books.google.com/books?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&q=The+dificulty+lay The National Review, China 1913 200 Google Bookshttps://books.google.com/books?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft Monumenta Serica H. Vetch 1967 67 Google Books or a descendant of the Ming imperial family who had the title of the Marquis of Extended Grace.Kent Percy Horace Braund https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941 The Passing of the Manchus 1912 E. Arnold 382 ffAldrich M.A. https://books.google.com/books?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&q=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace&pg=PA176 The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages Hong Kong University Press 2008 978-9-6220-9777-3 176 Google Books The Duke of Yansheng was proposed as a candidate for emperorship by Liang Qichao.https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 978-1-4438-6772-6 Rev. 74October 2024 The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility, like the Duke of Yansheng, was retained by the new Republic of China, and the title's holders continued to receive their pensions. A plan backed by foreign bankers was reportedly in place to declare the Duke of Yansheng as Emperor of China if the revolutionaries' republican cause had failed.Thomson 2020 61] Yuan proclaimed as the Chinese emperor Empire of China (1915–1916) On October 6, 1913, Yuan Shikai was formally elected President of the Republic of China through a vote by the National Assembly. After taking office, Yuan insisted on a strong central government and cut off attempts by some revolutionaries to have their provinces declare independence. At the same time, Yuan actively negotiated with the foreign powers to preserve China's sovereignty over Mongolia and Tibet. However, in 1915 Yuan Shikai abolished the republic and proclaimed himself emperor, which met with opposition and triggered the National Protection War; Yuan soon announced the cancellation of the monarchy. On June 6, 1916, Yuan died of illness, and Li Yuanhong succeeded him as President, with China entering a period of warlord fragmentation among the provinces and regions. Legacy Social influence Background After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, particularly in Beijing, where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence. Imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled with the Manchu's imperial power.13 October 2011 Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution 14 March 2017 Sinica Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like A Short History of Slaves (zh 奴才小史) and The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel (zh 貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (zh 老吏).Rhoads 2017 266Theobald Ulrich 28 September 2011 Chinese Literature: Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html 2011-11-17 chinaknowledge.deOctober 2024 During the abdication of the last Emperor, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (zh 滿漢一家).Rhoads 2017 266 People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. The new search of identity was the New Culture Movement.Tanner Harold M. China: A History Hackett 2010 978-1-60384-204-4 Indianapolis 123 Manchu culture and language, on the contrary, became virtually extinct by 2007.Lague David 16 March 2007 China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html 2011-11-17 The New York Times Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. Most participants in the 1911 Revolution were military personnel, traditional bureaucrats, and local gentries and kept their regional power afterward. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the standard of living. The writer Lu Xun commented in 1921 during the publishing of The True Story of Ah Q, ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing had changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen."Fenby 2008 143 Economic problems were not addressed until the governance of Chiang Ching-kuo in Taiwan and Mao Zedong in mainland China.O'Neill Mark 4 July 2010 Who is the Father of China? https://www.scmp.com/article/718832/who-father-china South China Morning Post The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of feudalism (fengjian) from the late imperial period. The usual view of historians has two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: Yuan Shikai, followed by Zhang Xun.Yan Jiaqi Toward a Democratic China University of Hawaiʻi Press 1992 978-0-8248-1501-1 Honolulu 189, 251 Hong David S. K. Mair Denis C. The effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution caused the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners to be driven into deep poverty. Manchu men were too impoverished to marry, Han men married Manchu women, and the Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and practicing Manchu traditions.Rhoads 2017 270 Historical significance The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and four thousand years of monarchy. Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. In 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the comrades still need to strive for the future." (zh 革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力).陸韻葭. (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. 978-9-8671-4313-6. p. 49. Since the 1950s, both Chinas have seen the 1911 Revolution quite differently.South China Morning Post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen. Both recognize Sun Yat-sen as the Father of the Nation, but in Taiwan, "Father of the Republic of China" is meant. In Mainland China, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a precondition for the communist state that was founded in 1949. It views Sun's work as the first step toward the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly-independent state, which expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power. The father of Communist China is seen as Mao Zedong. In 1954, Liu Shaoqi was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".1911 http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 https://web.archive.org/web/20120405215327/http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 2012-04-05 2011-11-17 Takungpao.com19 September 2011 http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html dead https://web.archive.org/web/20120617143143/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html 17 June 2012 2011-11-17 People's Daily zh zh:劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要） Zhou Enlai pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 4,000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."30 December 2008 zh:王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml 2011-11-17 Big5.ifeng.com zhApril 2026 Modern evaluation A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but Zhang Shizhao was quoted as arguing, "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."Zhang Shizhao Wenhui chubanshe 2000 978-7-8053-1543-0 8 Shanghai 341 zh zh:章士釗全集 zh:孫、黃遺劄密詮 Zhang Shizhao (章士釗) 1962 The degree of success of democracy gained by the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, the Nationalists controlled for sixty years all five branches of the government in Taiwan, and none was independent.O'Neill Mark 4 July 2010 Who is the Father of China? South China morning post Yan Jiaqi, the founder of the Federation for a Democratic China, has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties, which now democratize the region. Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised in mainland China. For example, the former Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights, but he led a 2011 crackdown against the peaceful Chinese jasmine protests.Pomfret James 27 June 2011 China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 2011-11-17 Reuters Others, such as Qin Yongmin of the Democracy Party of China, who was imprisoned for twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20111111115817/http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm 11 November 2011 2011-11-17 GEO.tv29 November 2010 Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20111031040822/http://hrichina.org/content/4879 31 October 2011 2011-11-17 Human Rights in ChinaOctober 2024 Qin said that the revolution only replaced one dictator with another and that Mao is not an emperor but worse than the emperor.9 October 2011 China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019145917/https://thewest.com.au/?r=https://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on 19 October 2017 2011-11-17 The West Australian Yahoo! News Media One of Japan's earliest film companies (M. Pathe, owned by Sun supporter Shōkichi Umeya) documented the success of the revolution from the Wuchang uprising and to Sun's inauguration and produced three documentary films that covered the revolution.Qian Ying Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China 2024 Columbia University Press 978-0-2312-0447-7 New York 1 See also China 1911 (film) The Battle for the Republic of China Republic of China Armed Forces Republic of China calendar National Revolutionary Army Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions Qiu Jin Monarchy of China References Sources 30em yes Fenby Jonathan The Penguin History of Modern China A. Lane 2008 978-0-7139-9832-0 London Gao James Zheng Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949) Scarecrow 2009 978-0-8108-4930-3 Rhoads Edward J. M. https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 University of Washington Press 2017 978-0-2959-9748-3 Studies on Ethnic Groups in China Wang Ke-wen Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism Taylor & Francis 1998 978-0-8153-0720-4 Further reading 30em yes Dingle Edwin J. Edwin Dingle https://archive.org/details/chinasrevolution00ding China's Revolution: 1911–1912: A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War The Commercial Press 1912 Kent Percy Horace Braund https://archive.org/details/cu31924021495258 The passing of the Manchus Edward Arnold 1912 London Edwards Louise Zhou Lili 2011 Gender and the 'Virtue of Violence': Creating a New Vision of Political Engagement through the 1911 Revolution Frontiers of History in China 6 4 485–504 10.1007/s11462-011-0138-8 1673-3401 Esherick Joseph W. June 2012 Reconsidering 1911: Lessons of a sudden revolution Journal of Modern Chinese History 6 1 1–14 10.1080/17535654.2012.670511 1753-5654 Esherick Joseph https://archive.org/details/reformrevolution0000unse Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei University of California Press 1976 978-0-5200-3084-8 Michigan studies on China Berkeley registration Fenby Jonathan October 2011 The Birth of China's Tragedy https://www.historytoday.com/archive/birth-chinas-tragedy registration History Today 29–35 61 10 Fung Edmund S. K. https://archive.org/details/militarydimensio0000fung The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: the new army and its role in the revolution of 1911 University of British Columbia Press 1980 978-0-7748-0129-4 Vancouver Goldstein Melvyn C. https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv A history of modern Tibet. Vol. 1: 1913–1951: the demise of the Lamaist state / Melvyn C. Goldstein with the help of Gelek Rimpoche Rimpoche Gelek University of California Press 1991 978-0-5200-7590-0 1 Berkeley registration Hsieh Winston https://archive.org/details/chinesehistoriog0000unse Chinese historiography on the revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography 1975 Hoover Institution Press 978-0-8179-3341-8 Stanford, CA Kaplan Lawrence Martin https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUMsUsv74NcC Homer Lea: American soldier of fortune University Press of Kentucky 2010 978-0-8131-2616-6 American warriors Lexington Ma L. E. https://archive.org/details/revolutionariesm0000male Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution University of Hawaiʻi Press 1990 978-0-8248-1239-3 Honolulu Mitter Rana 2011 1911: The Unanchored Chinese Revolution The China Quarterly 208 1009–1020 10.1017/S0305741011001123 0305-7410 Paulès Xavier https://books.google.com/books?id=OGTiEAAAQBAJ The Republic of China: 1912 to 1949 John Wiley & Sons 2023 978-1-5095-5259-7 Lightfoot Lindsay Rankin Mary Backus https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911 Stanford University Press 1986 978-0-8047-1321-4 Rhoads Edward J. M. https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 University of Washington Press 2000 978-0-2959-8040-9 Studies on ethnic groups in China Seattle Shan Patrick Fuliang https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ Yuan Shikai: a reappraisal University of British Columbia Press 2018 978-0-7748-3778-1 Contemporary Chinese studies Vancouver Shinkichi Eto China's republican revolution Schiffrin Harold Z. University of Tokyo Press 1994 978-4-1302-7030-4 Etō Shinkichi Schiffrin Harold Z. Wright Mary Clabaugh Mary C. Wright https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913 Yale University Press 1978 978-0-3000-1460-0 Wright Mary Clabaugh New Haven, CT registration Young Ernest P. The presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and dictatorship in early republican China University of Michigan Press 1977 978-0-4720-8995-6 Michigan studies on China Ann Arbor Yu George T. October 1991 The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-pdf/31/10/895/72130/2645062.pdf Asian Survey 31 10 895–904 10.2307/2645062 0004-4687 2645062 Zheng Xiaowei The politics of rights and the 1911 Revolution in China 2018 Stanford University Press 978-0-8047-9667-5 Online review. External links Category:1911 in China Category:1912 in China Category:20th-century revolutions Category:Civil wars in China Category:Revolution-based civil wars Category:Revolutions in China Category:Eight Banners