1834 Philadelphia race riot

Anti-Black incident in the United States January 2023 January 2023 1834 Philadelphia race riot Flying Horses riot mass racial violence in the United States August 12–14, 1834 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States 39 56 32 N 75 9 14 W type:event_region:US-PA inline,title 2 60 A race riot took place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States in August 1834. The riot, in which a mob of several hundred white people attacked African Americans living in the area, began on the evening of August 12 and lasted for several days, dying down by August 14. The riot took place during a time when many cities in the northern United States were experiencing incidents of mass civil disorder, usually in the form of riots that targeted specific religious, national, or racial groups, such as an 1831 race riot in Providence, Rhode Island, and the 1834 Ursuline Convent riots near Boston. In Philadelphia, this period coincided with a significant growth in population, particularly among African Americans and Irish immigrants. While there had been a strong community of working class black freedmen in Philadelphia since the early 1800s, tensions began to build through the 1830s, with restrictions on African Americans' participation in civic life and incidents of racial violence, such as in an 1829 incident where members of a black church were attacked. In early August 1834, there were several instances of violence against African Americans in the city, including an attack on the son of well-known black businessman James Forten by a white mob. On August 12, 1834, a mob of several hundred white men, primarily Irish, attacked the Flying Horses tavern, a well-known local establishment on South Street that served both black and white people in the area, named for a popular carousel on site. The mob overpowered the black people there, destroyed the carousel and building, and traveled down South Street and into the nearby suburb of Moyamensing, where they proceeded to destroy black-owned buildings and attack black people. Philadelphia Mayor John Swift assembled a posse of several hundred citizens to restore order, and 18 people were arrested, but rioting commenced again the following night, resulting in the destruction of the African Presbyterian Church and the beating death of an African American man. The next night was the last major night of rioting and saw the destruction of another church, though some minor instances of violence continued for the next few nights. In general, rioters targeted the houses of more wealthy African Americans and social spaces, such as churches and a Masonic Hall. In total, between August 12 and 16, 60 people were arrested for rioting. In the end, 44 buildings had been destroyed, including 30 houses, and two people were dead. A citizen's committee organized to investigate the causes of the riot reported that the primary cause was a sense of anxiety among white citizens who believed that black people were out-competing them for jobs. This conclusion has been discussed by historians, who also attribute the riot to fears over interracial mixing and resentments held against more affluent African Americans by poor whites. Over the next several years, Philadelphia experienced a wave of race riots, including one the following year and the 1838 destruction of Pennsylvania Hall. Discussing this time period, local author Charles Godfrey Leland wrote, "Whoever shall write a history of Philadelphia from the Thirties to the era of the Fifties will record a popular period of turbulence and outrages so extensive as to now appear almost incredible". By 1854, in part due to the riots, the county and city of Philadelphia were consolidated and a new police agency was created. Background Riots in the United States thumb|Race riots occurred in many large cities during the early 1800s, such as an 1831 riot in Providence, Rhode Island (historical marker pictured).Knight 2007 45 During the 1830s, many large cities in the northern United States, such as Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia, experienced several major riots, with causes including election disputes, labor issues, and racial tensions.Runcie 1972 187–189 According to historian David Hackett Fischer, the rise in the number of incidents in civil unrest corresponded to a long period of economic decline that the nation was experiencing in the early 1800s, with riots breaking out in major urban areas that pitted different ethnic, religious, and social groups against each other, such as Protestants against Catholics and native-born Americans against immigrants.Fischer 2022 263 Starting in the 1820s, race riots, where white Americans targeted African Americans, became common occurrences in many of these cities.Knight 2007 45 These events were highly violent and destructive, with an 1831 incident in Providence, Rhode Island, resulting in the destruction of an African American neighborhood,Knight 2007 45 while an 1834 riot in New York City saw a church, school, and several dozen houses destroyed.Hepburn 2007 15 Symbols of upward economic mobility among the African American community, such as church buildings and temperance halls, were often targeted as a way of maintaining a racial hierarchy of white supremacy.Rael 2002 75 While race riots were common in many cities, Cincinnati and Philadelphia experienced the most.Brown 1975 207 These cities experienced at least one per year between the two between 1834 and 1836 and again from 1838 to 1842.Hepburn 2007 15 Philadelphia in the early 1800s By the early 1800s, slavery in Philadelphia had been largely eliminated, with only 10 black people in the city recorded as slaves in the 1810 United States census.Fischer 2022 263 Additionally, the city had a large community of black freedmen and was a strong center for the abolitionist movement,Faulkner 2011 67 with historian Manisha Sinha calling the city "the antislavery capital of the country".Sinha 2016 210 From the late 1700s to the early 1800s, buoyed by a strong economy, the city's African American community saw economic growth, improved living conditions and access to jobs and education, and strong civic engagement with the rest of the city.Fischer 2022 263 However, by the early 1800s, this trend began to reverse.Fischer 2022 263 In 1804, a group of young black men marched through the Philadelphia neighborhood of Southwark, threatening many of the white residents there and openly calling for rebellion.Horton 2002 66Fischer 2022 263 The following year, during Independence Day celebrations at Independence Hall, a mob of white people chased out black participants, putting an end to the annual integrated celebrations that had been ongoing since 1776.Fischer 2022 263 By the late 1820s, black people were also banned from the city's Christmas celebrations.Horton 2002 66 In 1829,Horton 2002 66 a riot broke out wherein members of a black church were attacked.Fischer 2022 263 That same year, the Pennsylvania General Assembly openly advocated for the American Colonization Society's goal of relocating freed black people in the United States to Africa, and following Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831, the legislature banned freedmen from entering the state and repealed fugitive slave legislation that protected escaped slaves from being sold back into slavery in the southern United States.Dorsey 2002 152 thumb|1846 map of Philadelphia, with Moyamensing in yellow near the bottom Despite these changes, the African American population in the area continued to grow alongside the overall population,Grubbs 2015 From 1820 to 1830, the number of black people living around Philadelphia grew to about 15,000, making it the largest African American community in the northern United States.Lapsansky 1980 57 Working class municipalities around Philadelphia's Center City, such as Southwark, Moyamensing, Northern Liberties, and Spring Garden, grew as residences to both African Americans and white people, primarily composed of Irish immigrants.Bacon 2007 65–66 By the 1830s, there were 29 separate jurisdictions in Philadelphia County, which were patrolled by constables who had a difficult time keeping the peace amidst the growth.Fischer 2022 263 In many of these places, black and white people both frequented the same shops and social places, such as taverns, which led to some incidents of violence.Bacon 2007 65–66 In some cases, white residents rented their places of lodging from black landowners, which led to further resentment among poor whites.Bacon 2007 65–66 Highlighting the resentment against African Americans during this time, historian Barbara Lewis notes that in June 1834, just two months prior to the outbreak of the race riot, performer George Washington Dixon had debuted a minstrel show featuring blackface actors playing Zip Coon, a racist caricature of an African American man, at the Arch Street Theatre to much fanfare.Lewis 1996 269 Events prior to the riot On the night of August 8, 1834, a group of African Americans attacked members of the Fairmount Engine Company, a volunteer fire company, and stole some of their equipment.Runcie 1972 191Bacon 2007 48 At the time, private fire companies had a reputation for acts of violence due to political and gang-related activities that they were often involved in, and as a result, according to historian John Runcie, "Some sort of reaction was almost guaranteed".Runcie 1972 191 The following night, a group of several dozen white youths attacked the son of James Forten,Runcie 1972 191 though he managed to escape with his life.Bacon 2007 48 Forten was a prominent African American businessman in Philadelphia and owned several properties, many of which were rented to lower class white people.Lapsansky 1980 63 According to onlookers, this group, which consisted of about 50 or 60 people wearing blue jackets and straw hats, discussed plans to meet the following Monday, August 11, with the gang's leader overheard saying, "We will then attack the niggers".Runcie 1972 191–192 That evening, a group of white youths engaged in a physical altercation with some African Americans at a tavern on South Street, near Seventh Street.Bacon 2007 48Grubbs 2015 The tavern was a well-known institution in the area and housed a carousel called the Flying Horses, which was frequented by both black and white residents of the area.Stanfield 2022 92Ignatiev 1995 125Fischer 2022 263 According to multiple accounts, the fighting started due to a dispute over seats on the ride and resulted in the mob of white youths being driven out of the establishment.McMaster 1914 231Grubbs 2015 Speaking about the event in a 2016 book, Sinha stated that the subsequent riot had "[begun] as a fight between black and white firefighters at a carnival".Sinha 2016 232 Riot thumb|Philadelphia Mayor John Swift organized a posse of about 300 people to help restore order during the riot.Fischer 2022 264 The following night, Tuesday, August 12, a mob of several hundred white people, primarily composed of working class and Irish immigrants,Anderson 2012 283Runcie 1972 194 gathered at the Flying Horses and began rioting.Runcie 1972 190 The mob, which grew to about 400 or 500 people, destroyed the carousel and the building and beat any African American on sight.Runcie 1972 190Ignatiev 1995 125 Following this, the mob proceeded down South Street and into Moyamensing, an impoverished, mostly African American municipality, where they continued their rioting,Fischer 2022 263–264Runcie 1972 190Ignatiev 1995 125 destroying many black-owned buildings in the process.Bacon 2007 48 Constables were called in from Philadelphia to help put down the disturbance,Grubbs 2015 and Philadelphia Mayor John Swift assembled a posse of about 300 citizens to help restore order.Fischer 2022 264 During this first night of rioting, 18 individuals were arrested.Ignatiev 1995 127 Despite the attempts by authorities in Philadelphia to end the civil unrest, rioting resumed the next night, August 13.Fischer 2022 264 The rioters were organized, and prior to that night's activities, many of them met in an empty lot to discuss their plans.Ignatiev 1995 127 The primary targets for the night were the African Presbyterian Church on Seventh Street and the Diving Bell, a popular grog shop.Ignatiev 1995 125 After both of these buildings were destroyed, the mob turned its attention to primarily residential buildings, breaking windows, destroying furniture, and chasing black people into the streets, where they were beaten.Ignatiev 1995 125 White people who lived in houses in the area had been told before the rioting began to light candles in their windows, and these houses were passed over during the violence.Sinha 2016 232Ignatiev 1995 126 In general, the rioters targeted the houses of affluent African Americans, social spaces such as churches and a Masonic Hall, and places where black and white people tended to intermingle.Anderson 2012 283Morone 2003 190Lemire 2002 93 In total, over 20 houses were destroyed.McMaster 1914 231 According to a correspondent who was at the scene, the rioters threw a corpse out of a coffin and tossed a dead baby onto the ground.Turner 1911 160Ignatiev 1995 125–126 The mob was eventually dispersed by law enforcement officials and a posse of several hundred citizens.McMaster 1914 231 By the time the mob was dispersed, one African American man had been killed and many had been seriously injured.Bacon 2007 48 By August 14, Mayor Swift and Sheriff Benjamin Duncan had assembled a group of 300 constables, a troop of mounted militiamen, and had a company of the Washington Grays on reserve.Runcie 1972 190 Despite these precautions, more acts of rioting still occurred that night,Runcie 1972 190 with rioters again gathering beforehand to discuss plans.Ignatiev 1995 127 At the same location that they had met the previous night, they amassed equipment and traveled about 1.5 mi km to the Wharton Street Church in Southwark,Turner 1911 161Grubbs 2015 which they proceeded to destroy.Ignatiev 1995 127 Additionally, rioters used codewords such as "Big Gun", "Gunner", and "Punch" to warn others of advancing law enforcement officers.Ignatiev 1995 127 Following August 14, the nightly rioting began to die down, though some sporadic incidents continued for several days.Grubbs 2015Runcie 1972 192Ignatiev 1995 126 In total, 60 people were arrested for rioting in Philadelphia between August 11 and August 16.Runcie 1972 192 Aftermath thumb|upright|The riot prompted abolitionist Robert Purvis to move his family out of the city.Bacon 2007 48Faulkner 2011 68 While there had been earlier instances of violence against African Americans in Philadelphia, the incident marked the first major race riot in the city's history.Multiple sources refer to the August 1834 riot as the first major race riot in the city's history.Turner 1911 160Grubbs 2015Runcie 1972 189Lapsansky 1980 54 However, in 1829, the city experienced a riot which historian David Hackett Fischer referred to as "a major race riot" in a 2022 book.Fischer 2022 263 In a 1972 article about the 1834 riot published in the journal Pennsylvania History, historian John Runcie states, "There are many earlier instances of collective violence and racial tensions in Philadelphia's history, but this was the first time that the city had suffered a full-scale race riot. It was the first of many comparable incidents".Runcie 1972 189 note In total, two people died as a result of the several nights of rioting,Horton 2002 66Ignatiev 1995 126 with one person having been beaten to death and another drowning while trying to escape the mob.Morone 2003 190 Many African Americans attempted to flee the city during the rioting by crossing the Delaware River and entering nearby New Jersey,Bacon 2007 66 while abolitionist Robert Purvis purchased a house in nearby Bristol Township, Bucks County, in part to avoid future incidents of violence.Bacon 2007 48Faulkner 2011 68 In property damage, 44 buildings had been destroyed,Faulkner 2011 68 including over 30 houses and two churches.McMaster 1914 231Stanfield 2022 92Anderson 2012 283 Estimates for the damage done during the riot range from $4,000 to $6,000, equivalent to between $US 4,000 1834 -3 c and $US 6000 1834 -3 c in US.According to a 1972 article by historian John Runcie, a committee established to investigate the riot reported total damages of about $4,000,Runcie 1972 190 while Philadelphian abolitionist Lucretia Mott, the wife of one of the members of the committee, stated in a letter to a friend that the damages ranged between $5,000 and $6,000.Bacon 2007 48Faulkner 2011 68 note Many of Philadelphia's newspapers, such as The Pennsylvania Inquirer and the Gazette of the United States, extensively reported on the riot,Runcie 1972 189–190 and the event garnered national attention, with the Maryland Gazette dedicating significant editorial space to covering the violence.Stanfield 2022 92 Causes of the riot After the riot, Mayor Swift created a citizen's committee to investigate the causes and results of the incident, with anti-slavery activist James Mott and journalist John Binns serving as members.Bacon 2007 48Ignatiev 1995 126 The main cause for the riot established by the committee centered on economic fears held by many poor white people regarding free black people.McMaster 1914 231Horton 2002 66Ignatiev 1995 126 Among riot sympathizers, there was an attitude that black people were preferred for employment over their white counterparts,Horton 2002 66 which they attributed as the cause for a high rate of unemployment among white working-class people in the city.Ignatiev 1995 126 The committee seemed sympathetic to this line of thinking in their report, stating, "many whites, who are willing and able to work, are left without employment, while colored people are provided with work, and enabled comfortably to maintain their families; and thus many white laborers, anxious for employment, are kept idle and indigent".Jones 1998 268 Several historians also noted the role that fears of miscegenation and interracial mingling among the city's white population played in the riot.Stanfield 2022 92Lapsansky 1980 61 Regarding the destruction of the Flying Horses tavern, historian Susan J. Stanfield notes in a 2022 book that, "Integrated public spaces, particularly those that were entertainment venues, created anxiety about race and gender mixing that often led to violence".Stanfield 2022 92 Additionally, historian Emma Jones Lapsansky, in a 1980 article in the journal American Quarterly, notes that a later race riot in Philadelphia in 1849 was also spurred by fears of "race mixing".Lapsansky 1980 62 Lapsansky also notes some issues with attributing the main cause of the riot to competition in the labor market, saying, "recent analysis has shown that many anti-black rioters were not in direct economic competition with black workers, that the occupations for which they were trained were ones in which blacks did not participate".Lapsansky 1980 63 Instead, Lapsansky writes that the rioters targeting the homes of more affluent African Americans represented resentments that many working class white people held against members of the upper class,Lapsansky 1980 64 stating, "Though it was not black competition, but rather new technology and new work routines that actually caused skilled whites' job displacement, "upper-class" blacks were an acceptable target for frustration, whereas upper-class whites were not".Lapsansky 1980 71 In a 1972 article in the journal Pennsylvania History, historian John Runcie also adds that the riot may have been exacerbated by the weather at the time, as Philadelphia was experiencing a large heat wave that may have made individuals more agitated and prone to violence.Runcie 1972 216–217 Later history thumb|The 1838 destruction of Pennsylvania Hall was one of several instances of racial violence to occur following the riot.Woodson 1922 98 The Philadelphia riot was one of many incidents of civil unrest in the country in 1834,Howe 2007 434 and in fact occurred just one day after another well-known event, the Ursuline Convent riots near Boston.McMaster 1914 231 Several cities experienced race riots in the immediate aftermath of the Philadelphia event, including Rochester in New York, Bloomfield and Trenton in New Jersey, and Columbia, Lancaster, and Southwark in Pennsylvania.McMaster 1914 231 In the years following, race riots remained a common happening in Philadelphia, with many occurring over the next several years.Sources vary on the exact number of race riots that occurred in Philadelphia during this time. In a 1975 book, historian Richard Maxwell Brown stated that, between 1824 and 1849, Philadelphia experienced "five major and four lesser race riots" for nine total.Brown 1975 207 Historian Lois E. Horton wrote in a 2002 book that there were "at least nine race riots" between 1834 and 1838,Horton 2002 66 while an article in the 2013 Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia similarly states that, between 1828 and 1849, the city experienced "five major race riots",Wolfinger 2013 Meanwhile, both political scientist James A. Morone in a 2003 book and journalist Mumia Abu-Jamal in a 2004 book state that there were seven race riots in Philadelphia between 1834 and 1838.Morone 2003 190Abu-Jamal 2004 53 note According to historian Gladys L. Knight, this wave of violence began in 1829 and did not subside until the 1850s.Knight 2007 45 Some of the more infamous riots to occur during this time period included another race riot in 1835,Sinha 2016 233 the 1838 destruction of Pennsylvania Hall,Woodson 1922 98 the Lombard Street riot of 1842,Woodson 1922 98 nativist riots in 1844,Smith 1999 51 and the California House riot in 1849.Lippard 2014 16–17 In his memoirs, contemporary Philadelphian author Charles Godfrey Leland wrote, "Whoever shall write a history of Philadelphia from the Thirties to the era of the Fifties will record a popular period of turbulence and outrages so extensive as to now appear almost incredible".Smith 1999 51Runcie 1972 189 These constant acts of serial violence served as the inspiration for novelist George Lippard's 1844 book The Quaker City.Abu-Jamal 2004 53Ignatiev 1995 124–125 In 1838, with the passage of a new constitution, the government of Pennsylvania rescinded suffrage for African Americans.Grubbs 2015 Voting rights were not restored to black Pennsylvanians until 1870, after the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.Wolfinger 2013 In 1854, with the Act of Consolidation, the city and county of Philadelphia were consolidated, merging the 29 independent municipalities into one municipal authority.Grubbs 2015 This was done in large part due to the constant outbreaks of violence that occurred in the county, which critics stated was due to inadequate law enforcement coverage given the fragmented nature of the county's municipalities.Grubbs 2015 Shortly after the consolidation, a new police department was formed.Grubbs 2015 See also History of African Americans in Philadelphia List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States List of riots in Philadelphia Notes note References 20em Sources 30em yes Abu-Jamal Mumia https://books.google.com/books?id=caWPDd6PuaMC We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party South End Press Introduction by Kathleen Cleaver 2004 978-0-89608-718-7 Cambridge, Massachusetts Mumia Abu-Jamal Anderson Jennifer L. https://books.google.com/books?id=U18XHrQhjNIC Mahogany: The Costs of Luxury in Early America Harvard University Press 2012 978-0-674-06726-4 Cambridge, Massachusetts Bacon Margaret Hope https://books.google.com/books?id=glBc5UovY8kC But One Race: The Life of Robert Purvis State University of New York Press 2007 978-0-7914-8042-7 Albany, New York Margaret Hope Bacon Brown Richard Maxwell https://books.google.com/books?id=vW79dBtockMC Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism Oxford University Press 1975 978-0-19-802017-2 Oxford Dorsey Bruce https://books.google.com/books?id=9nTZl2U72QYC Reforming Men and Women: Gender in the Antebellum City Cornell University Press 2002 978-0-8014-7288-6 Ithaca, New York Faulkner Carol https://books.google.com/books?id=HOvvDbNNfbkC Lucretia Mott's Heresy: Abolition and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America University of Pennsylvania Press 2011 978-0-8122-4321-5 Philadelphia Fischer David Hackett https://books.google.com/books?id=0KQ1EAAAQBAJ African Founders: How Enslaved People Expanded American Ideals Simon & Schuster 2022 978-1-9821-4511-8 New York City David Hackett Fischer Grubbs Patrick 2015 Riots (1830s and 1840s) https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/riots-1830s-and-1840s/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20221025083641/https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/riots-1830s-and-1840s/ October 25, 2022 January 10, 2023 Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia Mid-Atlantic Regional Center for the Humanities Hepburn Sharon A. Roger https://books.google.com/books?id=T9n8Evph61IC Crossing the Border: A Free Black Community in Canada University of Illinois Press 2007 978-0-252-03183-0 Champaign, Illinois Horton Lois E. https://books.google.com/books?id=OUM3AgAAQBAJ Race and the Early Republic: Racial Consciousness and Nation-Building in the Early Republic Rowman & Littlefield 2002 978-1-4617-1505-4 Morrison Michael A. 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Capeci Jr. 2007 978-0-313-33301-9 Rucker Walter Greenwood Milestones in African American History 1: A–M Westport, Connecticut 45–47 Black Nationalism Upton James Nathaniel Lapsansky Emma Jones Spring 1980 "Since They Got Those Separate Churches": Afro-Americans and Racism in Jacksonian Philadelphia American Quarterly American Studies Association 32 1 54–78 10.2307/2712496 0003-0678 2712496 Lemire Elise https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yjxPd17gAC "Miscegenation": Making Race in America University of Pennsylvania Press 2002 978-0-8122-0034-8 Philadelphia Lewis Barbara https://books.google.com/books?id=108FKskkkygC Inside the Minstrel Mask: Readings in Nineteenth-Century Blackface Minstrelsy Wesleyan University Press Foreword by Mel Watkins 1996 978-0-8195-6300-2 Bean Annemarie Middletown, Connecticut 257–274 Daddy Blue: The Evolution of the Dark Daddy Hatch James V. McNamara Brooks Brooks McNamara Lippard George https://books.google.com/books?id=zBzeAwAAQBAJ The Killers: A Narrative of Real Life in Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 2014 978-0-8122-4624-7 Cohen Matt Philadelphia George Lippard Wong Edlie L. McMaster John Bach https://books.google.com/books?id=xPAQAQAAMAAJ A History of the People of the United States, from the Revolution to the Civil War D. Appleton & Company 1914 VI: 1830–1842 New York City John Bach McMaster Morone James A. https://books.google.com/books?id=XnP-vMOiRREC Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History Yale University Press 2003 978-0-300-10517-9 New Haven, Connecticut James Morone Rael Patrick https://books.google.com/books?id=CZRBpRJzR9QC Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North University of North Carolina Press 2002 978-0-8078-7503-2 Chapel Hill, North Carolina Runcie John April 1972 "Hunting the Nigs" in Philadelphia: The Race Riot of August 1834 Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies Penn State University Press 39 2 187–218 0031-4528 27772015 Sinha Manisha https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh8CwAAQBAJ The Slave's Cause: A History of Abolition Yale University Press 2016 978-0-300-18208-8 New Haven, Connecticut Manisha Sinha Smith Kimberly K. https://books.google.com/books?id=JbntAAAAMAAJ The Dominion of Voice: Riot, Reason, and Romance in Antebellum Politics University Press of Kansas 1999 978-0-7006-0957-4 Lawrence, Kansas Kimberly K. Smith Stanfield Susan J. https://books.google.com/books?id=rseVEAAAQBAJ Rewriting Citizenship: Women, Race, and Nineteenth-Century Print Culture University of Georgia Press 2022 978-0-8203-6260-1 Athens, Georgia Turner Edward Raymond https://books.google.com/books?id=o0f7n8wfPEMC The Negro in Pennsylvania: Slavery--servitude--freedom, 1639-1861 American Historical Association 1911 2006 978-1-4611-7521-6 Washington, D.C. Wolfinger James 2013 African American Migration https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/african-american-migration/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20230110002923/https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/african-american-migration/ January 10, 2023 January 20, 2023 Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia Mid-Atlantic Regional Center for the Humanities Woodson Carter G. https://books.google.com/books?id=Gx92AAAAMAAJ The Negro in Our History The Associated Publishers 1922 2nd Washington, D.C. Carter G. Woodson Further reading Tomek Beverly C. 2011 Colonization and Its Discontents: Emancipation, Emigration, and Antislavery in Antebellum Pennsylvania https://books.google.com/books?id=MNJGkphnMSAC New York New York University Press 978-0-8147-8443-3 Williams-Myers A. J. 1995 Destructive Impulses: An Examination of an American Secret in Race Relations: White Violence https://books.google.com/books?id=7XpF_BsNX18C Lanham, Maryland University Press of America 978-0-8191-9663-7 Category:1834 riots Category:1834 in Pennsylvania Category:19th century in Philadelphia Category:African-American history in Philadelphia Category:Attacks on African-American churches Category:August 1834 Category:Irish-American culture in Philadelphia Category:Irish-American history Category:1834 murders in the United States Category:Riots and civil disorder in Philadelphia Category:White American riots in the United States Category:South Philadelphia Category:1834 in Christianity Category:Attacks on bars in the United States Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in Pennsylvania Category:Murder in Pennsylvania Category:Attacks on shops in the United States Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans in Pennsylvania Category:White nationalism in Pennsylvania