1960 Force Publique mutinies

Army mutinies in the Republic of the Congo 1960 Force Publique mutinies Congolese troops during the Congo Crisis.jpg Congo Crisis Congolese troops in early July 1960 July 1960 Léopoldville and Thysville, later other places in the Lower Congo Mutiny, riots, protests Discontent about repression, racial segregation, and slow progress of reforms in the Force Publique Replacement of European officers (particularly Émile Janssens) in the Force Publique; reorganisation of the army Mutinous Congolese soldiers Belgian metropolitan troops Congolese government and loyal armed forces Belgian military intervention to protect citizens. Nomination of black officers. On 5 July 1960, soldiers of the garrisons of Léopoldville and Thysville of the Force Publique, the army of the newly independent Republic of the Congo, mutinied against their white officers. The revolt quickly spread throughout the Bas-Congo and engulfed the country in disorder, beginning the Congo Crisis. Background thumb|160px|left|Gendarmerie in Léopoldville, 1959. Unlike the rest of the Force Publique, the gendarmerie remained mostly loyal during the mutiny.Tompkins 2013 380 The Force Publique was long characterised by repressive police actions and entrenched racial segregation. With the exception of 10 adjutants appointed shortly before independence, no Congolese soldier was able to advance past the rank of sergeant.Willame 1972 61–62 Many hoped that independence would result in immediate promotions and material gains, but were disappointed by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba's slow pace of reform. The rank-and-file felt that the Congolese political class—particularly ministers in the new government—were enriching themselves while failing to improve the troops' situation.Willame 1972 63 There was dissatisfaction that Lumumba had appointed an unpopular colonel, van Hoorebeke, to a high post in the Ministry of Defence, and the troops from Équateur and southern Kasai were additionally upset that Jean Bolikango and Albert Kalonji were not included in the new government.Hoskyns 1965 87 Many of the soldiers were also fatigued from maintaining order during the elections and participating in independence celebrations.Willame 1972 63 On 27 June the Lumumba Government established a committee to draft a Treaty of Friendship, Assistance, and Co-operation to be signed with Belgium.Sík 1966 319 It stipulated that the Belgian civil servants in the Congo and the Belgian officers of the Force Publique would remain at their posts and receive compensation from the Belgian government.Gerard Kuklick 2015 163 It also allowed for Belgian metropolitan troops to continue to garrison the bases of Kitona and Kamina until another agreement could arrange the installations' handover to the Congolese government.Boulden 2001 22 The text of the treaty was hurriedly finished and on 29 June the agreement was signed by Belgian Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens, Belgian Foreign Minister Pierre Wigny, Lumumba, and Congolese Minister of Foreign Affairs Justin Bomboko.Hoskyns 1965 82Sík 1966 319 Independence Day, 30 June 1960, was a Thursday. It was followed by a long weekend of festivities that occurred in relative calm across the country. In Léopoldville, the capital, sporadic fighting took place between factions that were dissatisfied by the result of presidential election. On the morning of 4 July workers in Coquilhatville, the capital of Équateur Province, began striking. The Force Publique was called into service and opened fire on the crowds, killing nine people. The strikebreaking action was the last official undertaking of the Force before the mutiny began.Hoskyns 1965 87 That same day the Congolese cabinet convened to discuss reforming the national institutions. They resolved to establish a committee to examine reorganisation of the army, paying special attention to eliminating racial discrimination.Hoskyns 1965 87–88 Meanwhile, at Camp Léopold II, the chief military installation in Léopoldville, officers observed a high level of excitement among the Congolese ranks. One non-commissioned officer began telling his fellow soldiers that since the Congo was independent they were not required to adhere to the Belgians' orders. At 17:00 General Émile Janssens, commander-in-chief of the Force Publique, arrived and personally demoted him.Hoskyns 1965 88 Three undisciplined soldiers were placed in a holding cell, though two were provisionally released to Secretary of State for National Defence Albert Nyembo, who was informed of the incident.Vanderlinden 1985 126–127 In the evening Janssens heard on a radio broadcast of the government's intent to set up a committee to reorganise the army. He was outraged that he had not been consulted.Hoskyns 1965 88 The mutiny thumb|right|Force Publique troops on the streets of Léopoldville during the mutiny On the morning of 5 July General Janssens, in response to increasing unrest among the Congolese ranks, summoned all troops on duty at Camp Léopold II. He demanded that the army maintain its discipline and wrote "before independence = after independence" on a black board to emphasise that the situation would not change. That evening the Congolese sacked the canteen in protest at Janssens. He alerted the reserve garrison of Camp Hardy, 95 miles away in Thysville. The officers tried organising a convoy to send to Camp Léopold II to restore order, but the men mutinied and seized the armoury.Hoskyns 1965 88 The "Congo Crisis" which followed would come to dominate the tenure of the Lumumba Government.Young 1965 334 The following morning some groups of soldiers drove from Thysville to Inkisi, Madimba, and Mbanza-Boma, spreading the mutiny and raping two women.Hoskyns 1965 89 Meanwhile, Janssens finalised plans to attack Camp Hardy and had alerted the commander of the Belgian metropolitan troops in the Congo. The government countermanded his order and instead dispatched Mobutu, Charles Kisolokele, and the Vice President of Léopoldville Province to negotiate with the mutineers. They succeeded in releasing the captive Europeans and began evacuating them to the capital.Hoskyns 1965 90 Bands of angry soldiers roamed the capital, and Lumumba interrupted a cabinet meeting at his residence to invite one group to share its grievances.McKown 1969 111 In an attempt to placate the mutinous troops, he dismissed Janssens and promoted every soldier by one grade.Young 1965 316 He also dismissed the Belgian officer in charge of the Sûreté and forced him into exile, precipitating a collapse of the organisation completed by the departure of most other Belgian personnel.Gerard Kuklick 2015 163 The spread of the mutiny to garrisons throughout the country developed as troops—not yet aware of Lumumba's reforms—grew fearful over various rumours. Growing suspicion and division between the officers and ranks at the Kongolo garrison led the officers to place gasoline drums in the camp's armoury so that it could be destroyed in an emergency. The soldiers, wary of being killed, broke into the armoury and assaulted two officers. In the ensuing clash one Belgian and one Congolese were killed, marking the first deaths of the mutiny.Reid 2023 139–140 In Léopoldville, several Congolese soldiers were convinced that Lumumba had brought Soviet troops into the country to disarm the Force Publique. Angered by this, they stormed the hotel rooms of the Soviet delegation which had been present for the independence celebrations. Upon hearing what had occurred, Lumumba directed Bomboko to assume responsibility of the security of all foreign delegations present in the Congo and ensure that the Soviets could safely leave the country. Bomboko ordered Minister-Delegate to the United Nations Thomas Kanza to escort the delegation to N'djili Airport where they both convinced the Congolese soldiers to allow the Soviets to depart in peace.Kanza 1994 189–190 On 7 July formal negotiations between the mutineers and the government on the reorganisation of army began.Hoskyns 1965 90 A delegation of Congolese soldiers met with Lumumba to demand immediate wage increases, promotions, and the dismissal of their white officers.Othen 2015 Chapter 3: The Piano Player The government became even more concerned about the situation when a ministerial car was stoned.Legum 1961 109–110 Though the situation in the capital was relatively calm, anxiety grew among the European community, which began to arms itself with weapons from illegal stockpiles.McKown 1969 111 Belgian civilians began seeking passage to the French Congo or refuge in the Belgian embassy to await repatriation.Hoskyns 1965 90–91 Bomboko and Minister Resident in Belgium Albert Delvaux devoted much of their time to assisting them.McKown 1969 116 The provincial presidents, who had been summoned to the capital, met with the Council of Ministers to discuss domestic security in the context of the mutiny.Wilson Center 2011 105 Government response thumb|upright|Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, appointed chief of staff of the Armée Nationale Congolaise|left On 8 July the full Council of Ministers convened in an extraordinary session under the chairmanship of Kasa-Vubu at Camp Léopold II in Léopoldville to address the task of Africanising the garrison. By then the severity of the mutiny had convinced the ministers that radical reform was necessary in order to maintain the army's discipline. The soldiers on guard prevented them from leaving until they had decided upon their course of action.Kanza 1994 191 The Council first heard soldier delegations' grievances; the root cause of their dissatisfaction was that the army's leadership was wholly European despite independence from Belgium.Kanza 1994 193–194 After allowing for the election of a new commandant for the garrison, the ministers debated over who would make a suitable army chief of staff. The two main candidates for the post were Maurice Mpolo and Mobutu. The former had shown some influence over the mutinying troops, but Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers feared that he would enact a coup d'état if he were given power. The latter was perceived as calmer and more thoughtful.Kanza 1994 192 Lumumba saw Mpolo as courageous, but favored Mobutu's prudence. As the discussions continued, the cabinet began to divide themselves according to who they preferred to serve as chief of staff. Lumumba wanted to keep both men in his government and wished to avoid upsetting one of their camps of supporters. During a break he asked Thomas Kanza whether he thought his father, Daniel Kanza, might ultimately make an optimal chief of staff. Though Thomas Kanza told him that Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers would never accept such a proposal, Lumumba introduced the idea when the ministers reconvened.Kanza 1994 192 Kasa-Vubu received the idea in silence, implying his deep displeasure, and Bomboko, Jacques Lumbala, and Delvaux all continuously pushed for Mobutu to be made chief of staff. In the end Mobutu was given the role and awarded the rank of colonel. The ministers then decided that the Minister of Defence should appoint a Congolese sergeant major to replace Janssens as commander-in-chief of the army with the rank of general.Kanza 1994 193 Lumumba, at the suggestion of Rémy Mwamba, selected Victor Lundula for the role.Vanderstraeten 1993 241Mwamba had believed that Mobutu was too young for the role of commander-in-chief, though other ministers felt otherwise. They accepted his proposal of Lundula when it was agreed that Mobutu would be chief of staff.Willame 1990 147 In addition to the appointments a state committee for the army—officially renamed the Armée Nationale CongolaiseSources do not agree on when the name change was applied. Gibbs says it occurred on Independence Day,Gibbs 1991 78 while Gerard and Kuklick list it as a government reform in response to the mutiny.Gerard Kuklick 2015 28 Vanderstraeten portrays it as a result of the 'extraordinary ministerial council' of 8 July at Camp Léopold II.Vanderstraeten 1985 235–260 (ANC)—was formed and put under the charge of a Congolese officer. It was further determined that the President would ex officio be the supreme commander of the military, the Prime Minister and Minister of Defence would control the army in a structure approved by Parliament, and all army units would be placed under the command of Congolese officers.Kanza 1994 194 Delegations were to be dispatched across the country to implement the latter reform.Hoskyns 1965 92 The ministers resolved to retain all Belgian officers "prepared to serve the Congo loyally" and guarantee the security of their income, families, and propertyKanza 1994 194 so they could act as advisers to their successors.Young 1965 316 246px #c6dbf7 right "The head of state and all members of the government solemnly appeal to the whole population, to all soldiers and police, to reestablish order and return to work. The needful arrangements are being made to secure the safety and protection of people and property." Extract from the government communique of 8 JulyKanza 1994 195 The ministers decided it would be best to publicise their decisions as soon as possible. Immediately after the Council adjourned the garrison of Camp Léopold II was summoned to the barrack square. Lumumba, acting in his capacity as Minister of Defence, announced the actions the government was taking to address the army's grievances. A communique was distributed by the secretariat of the Council of Ministers to the press and radio, summarising the government's decisions.Kanza 1994 193 The Congolese soldiers were satisfied with them and tensions relaxed. Nevertheless, European civilians continued to try and flee the country.Hoskyns 1965 92 On 9 July the government delegations left the capital to oversee the Africanisation of the ANC. Mobutu traveled to ÉquateurHoskyns 1965 92, 94 and while he was there Mpolo acted as ANC Chief of Staff.Hoskyns 1965 136 Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba went directly to Matadi, where tensions were quickly worsening.Hoskyns 1965 92, 94 From that point until later in the month the two worked closely with one another and made most major decisions together.Hoskyns 1965 198 After appointing a new garrison commander, supervising the election of other officers, and securing the release of captive Europeans, the pair left the city to inspect other units throughout the Lower Congo. European officers handed over control to the Congolese in Kivu and Orientale without incident (the smooth transfer of power in the former owing to good co-ordination between the officers there and Provincial President Jean Miruho), but the military situation in Kasai and Katanga remained tense and was marked by violence. The government's decision to Africanise the army caused anxiety in the civilian populace of the latter province, which feared such a reform would result in the collapse of domestic security.Hoskyns 1965 94 The provincial government refused to support Africanisation and appealed directly to Belgium to intervene to resolve the situation. The troops subsequently mutinied, both in an attempt to dislodge their officers and to try and ensure that the Katangese provincial government could not effect a secession.Hoskyns 1965 95 Belgian intervention Belgian metropolitan troops in the Congo (the commandement supérieur des forces métropolitaines, Cometro), under the command of Major-General Roger A. Gheysen, were placed on alert following the dismissal of Janssens.Gerard-Libois Verhaegen 1961 377 In Brussels, news of conflict and abuses against Europeans brought public pressure against the Belgian government to take action. Walter Ganshof van der Meersch and August de Schryver were sent to Léopoldville with an ultimatum for Lumumba: either a formal request for Belgian military assistance could be made or metropolitan troops would act on their own initiative to protect Belgian citizens.Hoskyns 1965 95 The Belgian ambassador, Jean van den Bosch, urged his government to avoid the latter at all costs. As Lumumba was not in the capital, Ganshof and de Schryver met with other ministers in an attempt to persuade them to agree to a military intervention. Discussions continued late into the evening and though some members of cabinet appeared receptive, Deputy Prime Minister Gizenga was obstinately opposed to such action and ultimately refused to consent. Overnight orders to intervene were delivered several times to the Belgian troops at Kamina base only to be repeatedly countermanded by the government.Hoskyns 1965 96 Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu were informed of the planned intervention and, though initially receptive to the idea, were disturbed that the Belgian government would not make guarantees regarding respect for Congolese sovereignty and subsequently asked that all Belgian troops be withdrawn from Congolese soil.Namikas 2013 65 Regardless, the Belgians' decision to intervene ultimately prevailed and at 06:00 on 10 July metropolitan troops from Kamina flew into Élisabethville, the capital of Katanga Province, and occupied the local airport. Later that morning Bomboko met with fleeing Belgians at N'djili Airport. While there he declared that the Belgian intervention had been made at his request, though this was most likely untrue and probably only said to ease tensions.No record of any such request has ever been found, and the Belgians never cited one when attempting to justify their intervention.Hoskyns 1965 96 In the afternoon Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu returned to the capital having successfully quelled the unrest in the Lower Congo and convinced that negotiation could resolve the situation. Later they decided to solicit aid from the UN in restructuring the Force Publique.Hoskyns 1965 97 Ministers of the cabinet met with UN representative Ralph Bunche to discuss what technical assistance the UN could offer to the Congolese administration. Bunche shortly thereafter informed Hammarskjöld of the Congolese government's intended request.Boulden 2001 22–23 By evening Lumumba had learned of the Belgian intervention in Élisabethville. He was furious that the Belgians had acted contrary to the Treaty of Friendship and delivered a response over radio:Hoskyns 1965 97 We have just learnt that the Belgian government has sent troops to the Congo and that they have intervened. The responsibility of Belgium is great. We protest bitterly against these measures which prejudice good relations between our countries. We appeal to all Congolese to defend our Republic against those who threaten it. 246px #c6dbf7 left "I regret, in the name of the government of our Republic, the inadmissible actions that some soldiers have perpetrated against Europeans living in this Province. Our Minister of Justice, Mr. Mwamba, has today given formal instructions to the King's Prosecutor for legal inquests to be opened immediately regarding all guilty elements." Extract from Lumumba's letter to the Belgian consul-general, 11 July 1960The province of the Katanga and Congolese independence 1962 18 At the same time the Belgians launched a second intervention in Luluabourg,Hoskyns 1965 97 parachuting in troops defend an office building besieged by Congolese forces.Reid 2023 145 On 11 July Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu flew to the town.Hoskyns 1965 97 After overseeing the election of new officers for the garrison, Lumumba joined Kasa-Vubu in admonishing the Europeans to stay. Most refused to do so unless they had the protection of the Belgian troops. After lengthy negotiation Lumumba agreed to the condition and communicated to the Belgian consul-general that the force could remain in the province of Kasaï for two months. Back in Léopoldville, Ganshof and de Schryver continued to meet with the ministers with the hopes of establishing a mutual guarantee of security for both Europeans and Africans.Hoskyns 1965 98 Then, for reasons not entirely clear, Belgian units intervened in Matadi.The situation in Matadi was relatively calm at the time and all Europeans who had wished to leave had already done so. Some Belgian sources report that Belgian commanders were under the impression that European lives were at risk, while others state that the port was deemed strategically important in passing supplies to Léopoldville.Hoskyns 1965 98 Fighting broke out and 12Hoskyns 1965 98 to 18 Congolese were killed.Reid 2023 148 News of the conflict (along with exaggerated casualty reports) spread to other army camps across the country, resulting in a wave of renewed mutinies and anti-Belgian hostility.Young 1965 317Reid 2023 148–149 Between 10 and 18 July, Belgian forces intervened 28 times in Congolese localities. With the exception of the Luluabourg authorisation, the Belgian troops never acted with the permission of the government.Young 1965 318 Belgium also dispatched the naval Task Group 218.2, under Capitaine de vaisseau Petitjean, comprising nine vessels: the troop transport A957 Kamina, the Algerine-class F901 Lecointe, F903 Dufour, F904 De Brouwer and F905 Demoor, and the vedettes Semois, Rupel, Dender, and Ourthe.Vanderstraeten 1993 93–94 Order was ultimately restored largely through the use of the gendarmerie, a more wieldy and reliable institution than the army.Tompkins 2013 380 The previously mutinous troops did not resist the arrival of peacekeepers with the United Nations Operation in the Congo.Reid 2023 170–171 Aftermath and effects The Force Publique mutiny increased the unpopularity of the army and cost the government a significant amount of support in rural areas.Willame 1972 81 The insecurity they caused also impeded economic production and the distribution of goodsEconomic Developments in the Republic of the Congo 1961 99 and distracted the leadership from addressing other problems facing the administration.McKown 1969 116 The revolt was the first of many army mutinies that occurred in African states in the 1960s.Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny 1993 37 In the Congo itself, Colonel Mobutu would go on to seize power later in 1960 in a coup d'état, establishing the College of Commissioners-General, which ran the government in 1960-61 under his authority. Five years later Mobutu seized power for a second time, ushering in first quasi-military but then a civilian government. His rule lasted until 1997. Notes and references Notes Citations References 2 Boulden Jane Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia Greenwood Publishing Group illustrated 2001 https://books.google.com/books?id=7-_TiwKXJkcC Westport, Connecticut 9780275969066 The Congo Crisis, 1960-1961: A Critical Oral History Conference Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Washington, D.C. 28 November 2011 https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/The%20Congo%20Crisis%2C%201960-1961.pdf 9 September 2017 Wilson Center 2011 5 July 2017 https://web.archive.org/web/20170705205638/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/The%20Congo%20Crisis%2C%201960-1961.pdf dead Economic Developments in the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville) 1957–1960 Economic Bulletin for Africa 1 1 90–102 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa Addis Ababa January 1961 https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/811726/files/E_CN.14_E_22_V.1%20NO.1-EN.pdf Economic Developments in the Republic of the Congo 1961 Gerard Emmanuel Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba Kuklick Bruce Bruce Kuklick Harvard University Press 2015 978-0-674-72527-0 Cambridge, Massachusetts Gerard-Libois J. Verhaegen Benoit Congo 1960 Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques I 1961 Brussels French 963926463 Gibbs David N. The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis University of Chicago Press American Politics and Political Economy 1991 https://books.google.com/books?id=NgN64EXv8mgC Chicago 9780226290713 Hoskyns Catherine The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961 Oxford University Press 1965 London 414961 Kanza Thomas R. Thomas Kanza The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo Schenkman Books, Inc. expanded 1994 Rochester, Vermont 0-87073-901-8 Legum Colin Congo Disaster Penguin 1961 https://archive.org/details/congodisaster006719mbp Baltimore 586629 McKown Robin Robin McKown Lumumba: A Biography Doubleday 1969 Garden City, New York https://books.google.com/books?id=8yBBAAAAIAAJ 977145530 Namikas Lise Battleground Africa: Cold War in the Congo, 1960–1965 2013 Woodrow Wilson Center Press Washington, D.C. 978-0-8047-8486-3 Othen Christopher Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World The History Press illustrated 2015 https://books.google.com/books?id=d3MTDQAAQBAJ 9780750965804 Stroud The province of the Katanga and Congolese independence Republic of the Congo, Documents Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1962 Léopoldville https://archive.org/details/TheProvinceOfTheKatangaAndCongoleseIndependence 25943688 The province of the Katanga and Congolese independence 1962 Reid Stuart A. The Lumumba Plot Alfred A. Knopf 2023 New York 9781524748814 Sík Endre The History of Black Africa Akadémiai Kiadó Budapest 4 seventh 1966 https://books.google.com/books?id=uLFAAAAAYAAJ 313517290 Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny: January 1964 Dar es Salaam University Press Dar es Salaam 1993 https://books.google.com/books?id=8LAwAQAAIAAJ 9789976601879 Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny 1993 Tompkins Paul J. Casebook on Insurgency and Revolutionary Warfare United States Army Special Operations Command I revised 2013 Fort Bragg http://www.soc.mil/ARIS/CasebookV1S.pdf 2018-09-25 https://web.archive.org/web/20180619014342/http://www.soc.mil/ARIS/CasebookV1S.pdf 2018-06-19 dead Vanderlinden Jacques 1959-1960: la crise congolaise Editions Complexe 1985 fr https://books.google.com/books?id=IowjW6NQ5rgC 9782870271636 Vanderstraeten Louis-François De la Force publique à l'Armée nationale congolaise : histoire d'une mutinerie : juillet 1960 Académie Royale de Belgique 1985 Brussels fr https://www.academieroyale.be/Academie/documents/LXVI3_Vanderstraeten_Delaforcepublique_198512820.pdf 978-2-8011-0557-3 Vanderstraeten Louis-François De la Force publique à l'Armée nationale congolaise: histoire d'une mutinerie, juillet 1960 Académie royale de Belgique reprint 1993 Brussels fr https://books.google.com/books?id=MwMUAQAAMAAJ 9782803101047 Willame Jean-Claude Jean-Claude Willame Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo Stanford University Press Stanford 1972 https://archive.org/details/patrimonialismpo0000will registration M. Crawford Young 978-0-8047-0793-0 Willame Jean-Claude Patrice Lumumba: la crise congolaise revisitée Éditions Karthala 1990 fr https://books.google.com/books?id=iOSjXDdkrooC Paris 9782865372706 Young Crawford M. Crawford Young Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence Princeton Princeton University Press 1965 307971 Category:Congo Crisis Mutinies, 1960 Category:Mutinies Category:1960 in the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) Category:1960 riots Category:1960 protests Category:Riots and civil disorder in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Category:July 1960 in Africa Category:20th century in Kinshasa Category:Cold War rebellions Category:Military operations involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo Category:Military operations involving Belgium Category:Kongo Central Category:Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations Category:20th-century political riots Category:Attacks on military installations in the 1960s Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in 1960 Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in the Democratic Republic of the Congo