1989 Fergana pogroms

1989 massacre in Uzbekistan Fergana Massacre the exile of the Meskhetian Turks and the dissolution of the Soviet Union Fergana Valley, Uzbek SSR Meskhetian Turks 1989 6 3 y–1989 6 12 y(06 03 1989 06 12 1989) pogrom over 100Underestimate Estimates of the death toll vary: Historian Yegor Gaidar indicated there were 103 deaths,Gaidar 1993 297 The Economist reports a death toll of 112,Return of the Meskhetians https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/02/18/return-of-the-meskhetians 2026-03-01 The Economist 0013-0613 https://web.archive.org/web/20200812191840/https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/02/18/return-of-the-meskhetians 12 August 2020 while historians Bradley Mayhew, Simon Richmond, Richard Plunkett indicate that the death toll was at least 150.Mayhew Richmond Plunkett 2000 35 over 1,000 KGB-led mafiaSullivan 2017 79 Uzbek nationalist mobsUzbeks Allegations remain that representatives of other nationalities wearing Uzbek garb were involved in the attacks.Starr 2014 225 The Fergana pogroms happened in 1989, after riots broke out between the Meskhetian Turks exiled in Uzbekistan and the native Uzbeks. Hundreds of Meskhetian Turks were killed or injured, around 1,000 properties were destroyed, and tens of thousands of Meskhetian Turks fled to other Soviet republics.UNHCR 1999b 20.19 June 1989 MVD Says Pogroms Not Growing https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=59&q1=unrest Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 47 Over 100 people were killed in the pogroms, and over 1,000 were wounded and 752 houses destroyed. The pogrom has been described as "one of the worst rounds of ethnic violence in the former Soviet Union"Drobizheva Gottemoeller Kelleher Walker 2015 289 and received considerable international attention.Leitzinger 1997 31 It is not to be confused with the pogrom in 1990 that targeted Jews and Armenians.Berg 1998 27 Background Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks In 1944, the Meskhetian Turks were deported by the Soviet regime from the Georgian SSR to Central Asia, mainly to the Uzbek SSR. Unlike most other minorities deported in the Stalin era, they were not allowed to return to their homeland. By the time of the start of the pogroms, before the massacre, about 100,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Uzbek SSR.https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/population-transfer-tragedy-meskhetian-turks#:~:text=This%20was%20the%20case%20up,were%20burned%20to%20the%20ground. POPULATION TRANSFER: The Tragedy of the Meskhetian Turks March 1992 Cultural Survival While the Meskhetian Turks peititioned the government to allow them to return to their homeland, or at least somewhere in the Georgian SSR, they were unable to.Sheehy Ann https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Crimean_Tatars_Volga_Germans_and_Mes/vzalEQAAQBAJ The Crimean Tatars, Volga Germans and Meskhetians: Soviet treatment of some national minorities Nahaylo Bohdan 1973-07-01 Minority Rights Group 978-0-903114-17-2 26–27 en The Uzbek SSR enjoyed an extremely high level of autonomy compared to the rest of the Soviet Union, and while nationalism among smaller ethnic groups was discouraged, Uzbek nationalism grew in power, especially under the Sharof Rashidov administration.Lovell-Hoare Sophie https://www.google.com/books/edition/Uzbekistan/qF6PJda90gYC Uzbekistan Lovell-Hoare Max 2013 Bradt Travel Guides 978-1-84162-461-7 en Uzbek nationalist sentiments grew in response to the prosecutions of people involved in the cotton scandal.Stanton Ramsamy Seybolt Elliott 2012 315 Ethnic tensions existed long before the start of the pogrom, but became more pronounced during glasnost. For example, on 4 December 1988, there was a rally in the Uzbek SSR where people displayed banners with slogans disparaging other ethnicities, calling on Russians to return to Russia and for Crimean Tatars to return to Crimea,Abashin Bushkov 2004 170Golovkov 1989 29 and in February 1989 a group of around 100 people were thwarted in an attempt to launch a pogrom.Golovkov 1989 29 The Uzbek mobs that took part in the pogrom focused on Meskhetian Turks (and to a lesser extent, Crimean Tatars) for several reasons: Russians enjoyed the protection of Moscow and attacking them would result in significantly more backlash, the Korean community was very organized and had accumulated guns for self-defense in the event that they were targeted for a pogrom,Derluguian 2005 170 and Crimean Tatar-Uzbek relations were slightly better than Meskhetian Turk-Uzbek relations.Williams 2015 134Starr 2014 188-189 Widespread resentment of Meskhetian Turks developed due to the perception that they had a higher standard of living than Uzbeks.Remnick David 1989-06-10 5,000 REPORTEDLY RIOTING IN UZBEKISTAN TOWN https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/06/10/5000-reportedly-rioting-in-uzbekistan-town/0e866c67-c9b3-4134-bb42-6cf2bd712615/ 2026-03-03 The Washington Post en-US 0190-8286Trier Tarkhan-Mouravi Kilimnik 2011 27-28 Attacks The attacks on Meskhetian Turks took place from mid May to early June 1989 across numerous parts of the Fergana Valley. The riots started with a brawl in Quvasoy and spread across the valley, with most of the violence taking place in the cities of Fergana, Margilon, and Toshloq. Later violence spread to other cities such as Kokand.Abashin Bushkov 2004 170-173 Early attacks in Quvasoy From May 16 to 18, 1989, small-scale fighting took place between Meskhetian Turk and Uzbek youth in Quvasoy.Quvasoy Often spelled as Kuvasay and occasionally as Kuvasi. Misspelled by the New York Times as Kubasai.Clines Francis X. 1989-06-07 57 REPORTED DEAD IN UZBEK VIOLENCE https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/07/world/57-reported-dead-in-uzbek-violence.html live https://web.archive.org/web/20231010051807/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/07/world/57-reported-dead-in-uzbek-violence.html 10 October 2023 2026-02-14 The New York Times en-US 0362-4331 By May 23, the fighting in Quvasoy resumed and proceeded to escalate over the next two days the fighting resumed and escalated into major clashes that lasted two days. Hundreds of Meskhetian Turks and Uzbek were involved in the fights. After a crowd of Uzbeks tried to attack a majority-minority neighborhood and launch a pogrom, the authorities forced them to disperse. Around 300 police officers from other regions were summoned to help stop the pogrom. Over the course of the wave of violence, 58 people were injured, 32 of which required hospitalization. One police officer, Ikrom Abdurakhmanov, died in the hospital from his injuries. Rumors spread that Meskhetian Turks were attacking Uzbek women and children, invigorating mobs to continue attacks.Abashin Bushkov 2004 170 After the attacks, local authorities organized an emergency meeting to discuss how to contain the violence.Abashin Bushkov 2004 171 Toshloq The next wave of the pogrom began on June 3. That morning, in what has been described as the most aggressive attack, a crowd of young Uzbeks attacked Meskhetian Turks and set fire to their houses in the town of Toshloq.Toshloq Often spelled as Tashlak. The first murders took place in this village. That day, 56 people were killed, 43 of whom were Meskhetian Turks.Jalālzaʼī 2002 170Trier Khanzhin 2007 118Abashin Bushkov 2004 1717 June 1989 Брифинг в МВД СССР https://on-demand.eastview.com/browse/doc/21566372 Pravda 8 158 The next morning, the Meskhetian Turks in Toshloq were gathered on buses and given rides to the building that housed the district party committee to shelter there. Rioters began attacking the building where the Meskhetian Turks were sheltered and held the building under siege for over four hours, injuring 15 police officers who tried to defend the Meskhetian Turks. Eventually both the city party committee building and the local police department were destroyed.Abashin Bushkov 2004 171 Margilan On the morning of June 4, a rally gathered near a movie theater in Margilan. The crowd demanded that the first secretary of the city Communist Party come and listen to their demands. The secretary came and listed to their demands and encouraged them to remain calm, but the crowd insisted that the city hand over all Meskhetian Turks that were sheltering in government buildings and release everyone that had been arrested for attacking Meskhetian Turks. The government refused to hand over the Meskhetian Turks. By the afternoon that same day, the crowd managed to breach the city committee building where Meskhetian Turks had been sheltering. The crowd proceeded to ransack the building. However, the Meskhetian Turks who previously had been sheltering there had been moved to another place by the time the attackers breached the building.Abashin Bushkov 2004 172 A decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR was adopted on the introduction of a curfew on June 4 in a number of districts of the Fergana region.Starr 2014 189 1989-06-17 7,718 Weapons Reported Seized in Uzbekistan https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-06-17-mn-1558-story.html 2026-03-03 Los Angeles Times en-US Associated Press19 June 1989 Shatalin on Curfew, Events https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=60&q1=unrest Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 48 Fergana city On June 4 in the city of Fergana, pogromists armed with sticks and metal poles gathered in the city center in the morning, smashing cars and kiosks. The crowd surrounded the building of the regional committee of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan, attempting to break through the cordon and throwing stones. A small group managed to enter the building. On June 5, spontaneous rallies continued in central Fergana, on Lenin Square and near the Fergana Regional Party Committee building. A crowd managed to break into the building of the Regional Party Committee of Uzbekistan, but the Meskhetian Turks had already been evacuated. Pogroms and arson attacks on houses belonging to Meskhetian Turks continued in the city and surrounding areas. On June 5, youth groups also gathered in Quvasoy, but their attempts to start a clash were thwarted by police. Pogroms in Fergana continued on June 5, but by the end of the day, internal troops and police managed to stop them. Kokand At a Communist Party building in Kokand, a large crowd demanded the release of 400 people arrested for involvement in pogroms and were being held awaiting prosecution.Bennigsen-Broxup Marie January 1990 The Riots in Uzbekistan https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03064229008534768 Index on Censorship 19 1 30 Several people in the crowd were shot.Abramson 1997 18 On June 7, more than 5,000 villagers from nearby districts set off for Kokand in trucks, buses, and tractor trailers. About 1,500 Meskhetian Turks lived there; many of them had attempted to leave the city in the preceding days, but were detained and sent back by police posts set up on the outskirts. A crowd seized a brick factory and the police department building, which was soon recaptured by police. Sixty-eight prisoners were forcibly released from the pretrial detention center (according to other sources, they were released by the authorities at the crowd's demand). Hoping to escape, the Turks hid in a motor pool and a sanatorium, but some were still attacked. The attackers sacked and burned their homes, and the homes of local Uzbeks as well. In several settlements of the Kirovsky district, police stations were seized and service weapons were stolen.8 June 1989 Unrest Spreads to Kokand https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637886&seq=172 Daily Report: Soviet Union 109 23Abashin Bushkov 2004 173-176 On the morning of June 8, violence erupted again in Kokand and surrounding villages. A crowd took over the Kokand railway station; the proceeded to drain fuel from a tank and threatened to set it on fire and blow up nearby tanks unless participants in the pogroms who had been arrested were released and the Meskhetian Turks and police officers trying to protect them were handed over. Pogromists managed to take control of the Novokokand chemical plant, and other local enterprises, but Soviet troops managed to take back control of the facilities. As looting and arson on Meskhetian Turk homes continued, the homes of police officers who tried to stop the violence were also attacked. In the end, the Meskhetian Turks who remained in the area had to be evacuated by helicopter.Abashin Bushkov 2004 174 In Kokand, 23 people were killed, of which 14 were residents of Kokand.19 June 1989 More on Arrests, Violence https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=62 Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 50 Attacks in other regions Smaller-scale attacks on Meskhetian Turks also took place in other cities and towns such as Andijon,Abashin Bushkov 2004 172 Namagan,Clan Politics and Regime Transition in Central Asia Kathleen Collins 9781139461771 Cambridge University Press 118 and Surkhtepa.Abashin Bushkov 2004 172 Andijon oblast On June 4, in the village of Surkhtepa, located within the Akhunbabaev district of the Andijon oblast, pogromists expelled Meskhetian Turks from their homes and then set their home on fire.Abashin Bushkov 2004 172 Namagan oblast On the afternoon of June 11, in the center of Namagan oblast, around 300 people armed with improvised weapons such ranging from sticks and stones to axes and bottles of gasoline headed for areas populated by Meskhetian Turks, but were stopped at a railroad station by the police. The crowd threw stones at the militia instead after refusing to back down.https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=314&q1=2230 Uzbek MVD Colonel Cited Daily Report: Soviet Union 118 55–56 21 June 1989 Tashkent oblast In Yangibod, Tashkent oblast, hooligans chanting "Death to Turks" tried to storm the Meskhetian section of the town, but after the police fired warning shots they dispersed. Damage According to the commission of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Uzbek SSR, 103 people died during the pogrom, including 52 Meskhetian Turks and 36 Uzbeks, and over 1,000 people were injured,Trier Tarkhan-Mouravi Kilimnik 2011 27 including at least 137 servicemen of the internal troops and at least 110 police officers were wounded,Grigorev Viktor https://www.google.com/books/edition/Fenomeny_perestro%C4%ADki/tKxMAAAAMAAJ Феномены "перестройки": чрезвычайное положение 1994 Verdikt 12 ru one of whom (Tashkul Suvankulov)Golovkov 1989 30 later died from his injuries from when he was stabbed during an attack in Kokand.Kurdaev Tofik https://www.google.com/books/edition/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8/xz8yAAAAMAAJ Книга народной памяти: о турках 1996 Казахстан 978-5-615-01807-7 72 ru 757 residential buildings, 27 government facilities, and 275 vehiclesGolovkov 1989 28 were burned and looted. However, these numbers are likely an underestimate to downplay the scale of the casualties. While Meskhetian Turks were the primary targets of the pogrom, several Crimean Tatars were killed by the mobs of attackers in a chaos, and Soviet airlifts of civilians from the areas of the pogrom to Tajik SSR evacuated both Meskhetian Turks and Crimean Tatars.Williams 2021 438 Aftermath and reactions Government reactions Authorities in Moscow and Tashkent quickly claimed that the riots were planned by the mafia, the political enemies of Russian President Gorbachev or by Uzbek nationalists.Pravda 14 October 1989 2 287 ru Острые углы «жемчужины» V. Artemenko A. Kaipbergenov Nikolai Ryzhkov expressed shock that the attackers included local-level party officials.Leitzinger 1997 31 MVD Colonel Yevgeny Aleksandrovich Nechaev,Golovkov 1989 30Occasionally spelled Nechayev. Nechaev who had previously witnessed the Sumgait pogrom in the Azerbaijan SSR remarked that the Sumgait pogroms "did not even come close to the Fergana nightmare."19 June 1989 Continued Coverage of Crisis Events in Fergana https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=190 Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 46 An initial 17,000 Meskhetian Turks were evacuated by the Soviet Army in the immediate aftermath of the pogroms, and another 70,000 left almost immediately thereafter.Arnold 2016 88 Most of the airlifts took place between June 9 and June 18.Trier Tarkhan-Mouravi Kilimnik 2011 27 Due to allegations that alcohol played a role in the events, authorities in Quvasoy oblast took the step of temporarily banning sales of alcohol.19 June 1989 17 Jun Paper on Fergana Events https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=63 Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 51 Meskhetian Turk reactions After the pogroms, around 200 Meskhetian Turks rallied outside the Supreme Soviet requesting to meet with Gorbachev so they could tell him that want wanted to return to their homeland in Georgia.19 June 1989 Besiege Soviet Parliament Building https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000028637902&seq=59 Daily Report: Soviet Union 116 Following the pogroms, the majority of Meskhetian Turks, about 70,000, went to Azerbaijan, whilst the remainder went to various regions of Russia (especially Krasnodar Krai), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Ukraine.UNHCR 1999b 21. Uzbek reactions Uzbek nationalist sentiments against other minorities persisted after the pogroms, but was never as severe as the pogroms against Meskhetian Turks. A significantly smaller pogrom targeting Armenian and Jewish shops took place the next year, but there were no fatalities.Drobizheva Gottemoeller Kelleher Walker 2015 275https://www.google.com/books/edition/Survey_of_Jewish_Affairs/cYVtAAAAMAAJ Survey of Jewish Affairs 1991 Fairleigh Dickinson University Press 978-0-631-18307-5 190 enKrichevsky Lev 28 December 2006 Money, not Muslims, concerns Uzbek Jews https://www.jta.org/2006/12/28/global/money-not-muslims-concerns-uzbek-jews 2026-03-07 Jewish Telegraphic Agency en-US Eyewitnesses reported hearing mobs chant "Down with the Russians, home with the [Crimean] Tatars, and to Hanoi with the Koreans!"Williams 2015 139 Perpetrators While the many sources report that the mobs conducting the pogroms were ethnic Uzbeks, the extent to which representatives of other nationalities took part in the pogroms or were recruited to join the pogroms remains disputed. Some accounts state that some of the attackers were brought from outside of Central Asia but wore Uzbek national garb as they participated in the attacks to inflame ethnic tensions and weaken local-level Uzbek authorities.Starr 2014 225Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 Motives According to the most commonly reported version of events, the pogrom originated at a market over a quarrel over a bowl of strawberries when allegedly a Meskhetian Turk customer knocked over a plate of strawberries belonging to an Uzbek saleswoman,Abashin Bushkov 2004 193 or alternatively, a dispute arose about the price of the strawberries.Drobizheva Gottemoeller Kelleher Walker 2015 274 It is unclear to what extent religion influenced the attacks;Leitzinger 1997 31 both Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks are predominantly Sunni Muslim.Starr 2014 188-189 Some attackers were rumored to have shouted Islamic slogans during the attacks, but others were seen drinking vodka, an alcoholic beverage.Leitzinger 1997 31Alcohol is generally considered haram (forbidden) in Islam. Other theories Jewish writer Boris Yusupov claimed that the pogrom took place because Meskhetian Turks were ordered by authorities in Moscow to attack the Bukharan Jewish community but they refused, so the KGB ordered an attack on them instead.Sullivan 2017 78-79 According to another theory, the Crimean Tatars may have been the original intended target of the attacks.Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 Theories that the pogroms were completely engineered by KGB are often considered far-fetched given the severe pre-existing ethnic tensions and the fact that the pogrom started in the small town of Quvasoy instead of somewhere more significant.Starr 2014 192-193 Long-term effects The pogroms had the effect of fragmenting the Meskhetian Turk community,Trier Khanzhin 2007 14Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 who were dispersed as refugees to various other Soviet republics. In contrast, the Crimean Tatar movement to repatriate grew more powerful, reinforcing their desire to leave Central Asia.Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 The local Jewish community was also incredibly alarmed by the massacre and hastened their exodus from Uzbekistan.Ochildiev Pinkhasov Kalontarov 2007 218Soviet Aliya to Israel: Dimensions, Composition, Jewish Identity https://www.google.com/books/edition/Humanistic_Judaism/RPolAQAAIAAJ Humanistic Judaism 1991 Katz Zev 4 Humanistic Judaism, Incorporated 19 en 22–23 Meskhetian Turks who fled Central Asia for Krasnodar were targeted for a pogrom again, this time by Russian Cossacks, but it was much smaller than the Fergana pogrom.McAuley 1997 136Arnold 2016 89-90 While the Crimean Tatars were able to secure the right of return to their homeland, the Meskhetian Turks were denied their right of return. The desire to return to Crimea had always been a "push" factor in increasing Crimean Tatar desire to return to their homeland, and the fear of another pogrom created a new "pull" factor from desire to leave the Uzbek SSR.Williams 2021 438 Many Crimean Tatars who previously did not want to return changed their mind after the massacre,Williams 2021 438 realizing that it could have been them.Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 Speculation remains that the Crimean Tatars may have been the original intended target of the attacks.Trier Khanzhin 2007 617 The pogrom has been described as potentially an attempt at genocide.Daniels 2005 928-931 Russian mistrust of Islam also heightened as a result of the massacre.Critchlow 2018 78 See also Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in South Ossetia 1990 Dushanbe riots 1990 Osh clashes 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes Rooftop Koreans Footnotes References Bibliography UNHCR 1999b Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Georgia https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6590.html United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees О трагических событиях в Ферганской области и ответственности партийных, советских и правоохранительных органов Pravda Vostoka 30 July 1989 1–2 176 ru Abashin Sergey Bushkov Valentin Ферганская долина этничность, этнические процессы, этнические конфликты 2004 https://www.google.com/books/edition/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0/zFhpAAAAMAAJ Nauka Abramson David M. Remembering the Present: The Meaning Today of the 1989 Violence in Kokand Central Asia Monitor 3 1997 18–21 https://www.google.com/books/edition/Central_Asia_Monitor/sAtpAAAAMAAJ Arnold Richard https://www.google.com/books/edition/Russian_Nationalism_and_Ethnic_Violence/rq5TDAAAQBAJ Russian Nationalism and Ethnic Violence: Symbolic Violence, Lynching, Pogrom and Massacre 2016 Routledge 978-1-317-20947-8 88 en Berg Hetty https://www.google.com/books/edition/Facing_West/HbRtAAAAMAAJ Facing West: Oriental Jews of Central Asia and the Caucasus 1998 University of Washington Press 978-90-400-9216-9 en Critchlow James https://www.google.com/books/edition/Nationalism_In_Uzbekistan/JnhQDwAAQBAJ 2018 Taylor & Francis Nationalism In Uzbekistan A Soviet Republic's Road To Sovereignty Daniels Mike https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_George_Washington_International_Law/2_q4AAAAIAAJ Assessing the Genocide and Political Mass Murder Framework: The Case of Uzbekistan 2005 37 3-4 George Washington International Law Review Derluguian Georgi M. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Bourdieu_s_Secret_Admirer_in_the_Caucasu/U0n_zmzxwAkC Bourdieu's Secret Admirer in the Caucasus: A World-System Biography 2005 University of Chicago Press 978-0-226-14282-1 en Gaidar Yegor https://www.google.com/books/edition/Collapse_of_an_Empire/kml2EQAAQBAJ? Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia 1993 Bloomsbury Publishing USA 978-0-8157-4152-7 en Golovkov Anatoly July 1989 Затмение https://olcottm.msu.domains/files/original/140893610c74e17a930c26c90851a676f74e2678.pdf Ogonyok 29 28–31 https://web.archive.org/web/20260314154658/https://olcottm.msu.domains/files/original/140893610c74e17a930c26c90851a676f74e2678.pdf 14 March 2026 Drobizheva Leokadia Gottemoeller Rose Kelleher Catherine McArdle Walker Lee https://www.google.com/books/edition/Ethnic_Conflict_in_the_Post_Soviet_World/oW3xBwAAQBAJ Ethnic Conflict in the Post-Soviet World: Case Studies and Analysis: Case Studies and Analysis 2015 Routledge 978-1-317-47098-4 en Jalālzaʼī Mūsá K̲h̲ān https://www.google.com/books/edition/Taliban_and_the_New_Great_Game_in_Afgani/Nf9tAAAAMAAJ Taliban and the New Great Game in Afganistan 2002 Dua Publications en Leitzinger Antero https://www.google.com/books/edition/Caucasus_and_an_Unholy_Alliance/3DoiAQAAIAAJ Caucasus and an Unholy Alliance 1997 Kirja-Leitzinger 978-952-9752-16-4 en Mayhew Bradley https://www.google.com/books/edition/Central_Asia/IUabshLxW5YC Central Asia Richmond Simon Plunkett Richard 2000 Lonely Planet 978-0-86442-673-4 en McAuley Mary https://www.google.com/books/edition/Russia_s_Politics_of_Uncertainty/0uAUz_lwHusC Russia's Politics of Uncertainty 1997 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-47976-9 en Ochildiev David Robert Pinkhasov Iosif Kalontarov A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews 2007 Roshnoyi-Light Stanton Andrea L. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cultural_Sociology_of_the_Middle_East_As/nVN2AwAAQBAJ Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia Ramsamy Edward Seybolt Peter J. Elliott Carolyn M. 2012-01-05 SAGE Publications 978-1-4522-6662-6 315 en Starr S. Frederick https://www.google.com/books/edition/Ferghana_Valley/7NHfBQAAQBAJ? Ferghana Valley: The Heart of Central Asia 2014 Routledge 978-1-317-47065-6 en https://www.google.com/books/edition/Economic_Inequality_Neoliberalism_and_th/Ow7ZDgAAQBAJ Sullivan Patrick Economic Inequality, Neoliberalism, and the American Community College 2017 Springer Trier Tom https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Meskhetian_Turks_at_a_Crossroads/7pxpAAAAMAAJ The Meskhetian Turks at a Crossroads: Integration, Repatriation Or Resettlement? Khanzhin Andrei 2007 Lit 978-3-8258-9628-7 en Trier Tom Tarkhan-Mouravi George Kilimnik Forrest Meskhetians: Homeward Bound... 2011 European Centre for Minority Issues – Caucasus 978-9941-0-3531-9 Williams Brian Glyn Brian Glyn Williams https://books.google.com/books?id=oBlREAAAQBAJ The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation 2021 BRILL 978-90-04-49128-1 en Williams Brian Glyn https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Crimean_Tatars/oGTRCwAAQBAJ The Crimean Tatars: From Soviet Genocide to Putin's Conquest 2015 Oxford University Press 978-0-19-049471-1 en Further reading UNHCR 1999a Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6590.html United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees https://books.google.com/books?id=wulDuN7APaIC Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia Buckley Cynthia J. Ruble Blair A. Hofmann Erin Trouth 2008 Woodrow Wilson Center Press 9780801890758 en Naumkin Vitaly https://www.google.com/books/edition/Central_Asia_and_Transcaucasia/KEppAAAAMAAJ Central Asia and Transcaucasia Ethnicity and Conflict 1994 Bloomsbury Academic 40 54 03 N 71 45 28 E title Category:1989 riots Category:June 1989 in Asia Category:Ethnic riots Category:Riots and civil disorder in the Soviet Union Category:Massacres in the Soviet Union Category:Persecution of Turkish people Category:Massacres in Uzbekistan Category:1989 murders in the Soviet Union Category:Massacres in 1989 Category:20th-century mass murders in Asia Category:1989 in Uzbekistan Category:Pogroms