1988 Winter Olympics

Multi-sport event in Calgary, Canada June 2026 June 2021 1988 Winter Olympics 1988 Winter Olympics logo.svg 150 Emblem of the 1988 Winter OlympicsThe emblem is a stylized, pentagon-shaped, snowflake and maple leaf. It is made up of five large and five small letters of "C." The large "C"s symbolizes the country of Canada. The small "c"s symbolizes the city of Calgary. The whole emblem is above the Olympic rings.Osterwalder Markus Olympic Games – The Design (Calgary 1988 Emblem) https://www.theolympicdesign.com/olympic-design/emblems/calgary-1988/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20210305170702/https://www.theolympicdesign.com/olympic-design/emblems/calgary-1988/ March 5, 2021 Niggli Verlag March 28, 2021 Calgary, Canada Come Together in Calgary(fr Rassemblez-vous à Calgary) 57 1,426 (1,111 men, 315 women) 46 in 6 sports (10 disciplines) February 13, 1988 February 28, 1988 Governor General Jeanne Sauvé IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch Robyn Perry McMahon Stadium Sarajevo 1984 Albertville 1992 Los Angeles 1984 Seoul 1988 The 1988 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games (fr XVes Jeux olympiques d'hiver) and commonly known as Calgary 1988 were a multi-sport event held from February 13 to 28, 1988, with Calgary, Canada, as the main host city. This marks the most recent time that two consecutive Olympic Games were hosted in North America; the 1984 Summer Olympics were hosted in Los Angeles.List of Olympic Host Cities – Architecture of the Games https://architectureofthegames.net/olympic-host-cities/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20240813224420/https://architectureofthegames.net/olympic-host-cities/ 2024-08-13 2024-08-13 en It was the first Winter Olympic Games to be held for 15 days, like the counterpart Summer Olympic Games.Calgary 1988 April 23, 2018 International Olympic Committee https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/calgary-1988 July 25, 2021 https://web.archive.org/web/20210725164335/https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/calgary-1988 July 25, 2021 live Most of the events took place in the city of Calgary; the snow events were shared by Nakiska ski resort in Kananaskis Country at the west of the citySlade Daryl Nakiska ready for onslaught of enthusiasts December 4, 1986 Calgary Herald E8 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=63pkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1589,3021875 March 21, 2021 https://web.archive.org/web/20210815070936/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=63pkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1589,3021875 August 15, 2021 livehttps://skinakiska.com/ Nakiska Ski Area Resorts of the Canadian Rockies March 21, 2021 and the Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park in the town of Canmore.https://albertaparks.ca/parks/kananaskis/canmore-nordic-centre-pp/ Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park Alberta Parks March 21, 2021 It was the last Winter Olympics that took place during the Cold War. In 1988, a record 57 National Olympic Committees (NOC) sent a total of 1,424 athletes to these Games. These Winter Olympics would be the last attended for both the Soviet Union and East Germany NOCs. As had been the case at the 1976 Summer Olympics, which were held in Montreal, Canada did not win an official gold medal on their home soil, although they won three gold medals in unofficial demonstration events. The Finnish ski jumper, Matti Nykänen,OCO'88 1988 39https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/feb/04/matti-nykanen-ski-jumping-great-dies-aged-55 Matti Nykänen, Finnish ski-jumping great, dies aged 55 The Guardian March 22, 2021 February 4, 2019 and the Dutch speed skater, Yvonne van Gennip,OCO'88 1988 47https://www.olympic.org/yvonne-van-gennip Yvonne VAN GENNIP International Olympic Committee March 22, 2021 won three individual gold medals each. The 1988 Winter Olympics were also remembered for the "heroic failure" of the British ski jumper, Michael Edwards, and the debut of the Jamaica national bobsleigh team. Both of them became subjects of major feature films about their participation in these Games, respectively Eddie the Eagle in 2016 and Cool Runnings in 1993. At approximately C$829 million, the Calgary Games were the most expensive Olympics ever held at the time, as all the necessary infrastructure was built from scratch. The facilities that were built for these Winter Olympics helped the host region to turn into the heart of Canada's elite winter sports program, under the tutelage of WinSport.https://www.winsport.ca/ Calgary's Winter Sport Institute WinSport April 2, 2021 The five purpose-built venues are still used for training and hosting various winter sporting events. Host city selection Bids for the 1988 Winter Olympics + 1988 Winter Olympics bidding resultshttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IjVIAAAAIBAJ&pg=1341,81435 Seoul chosen in easy vote for 1988 Summer Olympics The Record-Journal (Meriden, CT) October 1, 1981 February 14, 2013 17 City Country Round 1 2 Calgary Canada 35 48 Falun Sweden 25 31 Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy 18 — Calgary made its fourth attempt at hosting the Winter Games when it bid for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games, which also marked Canada's seventh bid for the Winter Olympic Games. Montreal made the first Canadian bid for the Winter Games in 1956 and won the rights to host the 1976 Summer Olympics, and Vancouver made attempts to host the 1976 and 1980 Games. Calgary, alongside neighbouring Banff, under the leadership of the Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA), submitted bids for the Winter Games in 1964, 1968, and 1972.Cotton Crosbie Canada missed six prior bids Calgary Herald September 30, 1981 A19 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2nNkAAAAIBAJ&pg=3926%2C6767945King 1991 9OCO'88 1988 51 However, CODA went dormant in 1966 after losing three consecutive bids. In 1978, Frank King and Bob Niven of Calgary's Booster Club took over the organization's leadership and revived CODA.King 1991 6Cotton Crosbie Around the world, CODA has given its best shot Calgary Herald September 30, 1981 A19 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2nNkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1545%2C6767767https://www.calgaryboosterclub.com/archives/sportsman-of-the-year/frank-king Frank King Calgary Booster Club July 20, 2021 King and Niven consulted former Olympic Sprinter and CODA founder, Ernie McCullough, and politician Arthur Ryan Smith, who had worked on previous bids, for guidance on the project. In October 1979, CODA secured the Canadian Olympic Association's (COA) support for Canada's official bid to host the 1988 Winter Olympics, winning over a competing bid by Vancouver with a vote of 27–9.King 1991 34 Calgary's bid was at the time the most ambitious for the Winter Olympics ever, as the city lacked winter sports facilities and almost everything would have to be built from scratch. CODA proposed constructing all new venues, arguing that if Calgary was awarded the Games, Canada's inventory of training facilities would increase significantly. The Vancouver bidding committee argued that Calgary's bid represented a "Big-ticket Games" idea, and estimated to cost nearly three times what Vancouver was expected to pay to host the Winter Olympics.https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=cLdlAAAAIBAJ&pg=3564,3570816 Vancouver loses to 'big-ticket' Games Vancouver Sun October 29, 1979 February 14, 2013 F7 Vancouver's bid was based on already developed infrastructure, including the Expo 86 precinct, the Pacific Coliseum and Whistler Blackcomb, which later served as the basis for the successful 2010 Winter Olympics bid and the later unsuccessful 2030 Winter Olympics bid.King 1991 26 CODA then spent two years building local support for the megaproject, selling 5 CAD memberships to approximately 80,000 of Calgary's 600,000 residents.King 1991 38 Calgary also secured 270 CAD million in funding from the federal (200 CAD million) and provincial governments. Some civic leaders, including then-mayor Ralph Klein, travelled around the world to lobby IOC delegates. The arrival of the National Hockey League's (NHL) newly relocated Calgary Flames from Atlanta in 1980 drove the city to construct a new multi-use arena that would later be named the Olympic Saddledome, demonstrating to the IOC Calgary's determination to host the Winter Olympics.OCO'88 1988 153 The Olympic bid itself emphasized the unique cultural and natural characteristics who mark the Calgary Metropolitan Region and the Alberta Province and also canadian prairies landscapes, as a perfect places for hosting the Winter Olympics. At the bidding documents, the city was marketed with a capitalist, oil-driven and vibrant economy that also had mountain playgrounds, extensive wilderness, and a rodeo culture.Findling Pelle 1996 311 When the two images of Calgary and Alberta were brought together, they seemed to be contrasting; however, they complemented each other as part of extensive and intense bidding lobby process. Calgary was one of three finalists during the 1988 Winter Olympics bid process. The other two were Falun, Sweden, and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. The Italian town (comune) had before hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics and was seen by many as the favorite. The vote was held on September 30, 1981, in Baden-Baden, West Germany, during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress. After Cortina d'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting, Calgary won in the second and final round of balloting over Falun, by a margin of 17 votes. The announcement of CODA's victory sent the delegates in Baden-Baden and Calgary residents into singing and dancing.Cotton Crosbie https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=V3dkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1453%2C4565 Delighted delegates dance 'victory stomp' Calgary Herald October 1, 1981 February 14, 2013 A1 It also made then Alberta premier, Peter Lougheed, burst openly into tears in front of the cameras. Later, Ralph Klein sang a rendition of Mac Davis' It's Hard to Be Humble.Walmsley Ann The Men Who Made it Work https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1988/2/2/the-men-who-made-it-work https://web.archive.org/web/20181127234352/http://archive.macleans.ca/article/1988/2/2/the-men-who-made-it-work dead November 27, 2018 June 10, 2021 Maclean's February 2, 1988 101 4 20–22 It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada and the second Olympic Games overall, following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. Cortina d'Ampezzo, along with Milan, would get to host the 2026 Winter Olympics.https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/milano-cortina-2026 Milano Cortina 2026 International Olympic Committee March 10, 2021 July 21, 2021 Olympic historians, John E. Findling and Kimberly D. Pelle noted that once the Games were awarded to Calgary, the cultural and community aspects of the bid were pushed aside by the newly formed Calgary Olympic organizing committee called the Olympiques Calgary Olympics '88 (OCO'88). It then proceeded to take on a "vigorous, resilient, and impersonal corporate business strategy" based in the work made by Los Angeles 1984 Organizing Committee (LAOCOG) toward the planning and operation of the Games. Venues thumb|right|The IIHF called the Olympic Saddledome "the finest international rink in the world". It is also the largest hockey arena ever used at the Olympics with a capacity of 20,016 in 1988.Podnieks 2009 149|alt=Exterior shot of an indoor arena. The building has a sloped roof in the shape of a reverse hyperbolic paraboloid and a primarily-concrete outer facing with red towers at the corners. Several skyscrapers are visible in the background. Venues of the 1988 Winter Olympics Bill Pratt was a former general contractor who took over as OCO'88 president in 1983. He was the main manager that oversaw the construction of the Olympic megaproject. Donald Jacques, a former general manager of the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede, once said, "Because of him, everything was built on time and on budget." However, Bill Pratt was controversial by rubbing many of his colleagues the wrong way. One former co-worker once predicted back in 1983: "He will get everything built. There may not be many (of us) left around to enjoy it, but he'll get it done." His relations with the news media were also strained at times. He had barely settled into his new position when the Calgary press media began criticizing OCO'88 for excessive secrecy and for awarding Olympic contracts to Calgary's PR firm Francis Williams and Johnson Ltd.https://www.cprs.ca/About/Yocom-Public-Relations-Profiles/John-Francis John Francis Canadian Public Relations Society September 13, 2021 Pratt was a director of that firm, before accepting the organizing committee job. OCO'88 had insisted that there was no conflict of interest involved in the whole process. Therefore, Pratt declared: "I have been nailed for a lot, but that does not bother me. The record stands". After the 1988 Winter Olympics bid was won in 1981, OCO'88 made a new technical assessment and had to re-plan all the originally proposed competition venues except for the few that already existed and were within the campus of the University of Calgary.Findling Pelle 1996 312 McMahon Stadium, the primary outdoor facility used mainly by the Canadian Football League's (CFL) Calgary Stampeders and inside of the University of Calgary and had originally been chosen to host only the opening ceremonies and the Saddledome was chosen to be the place of the closing ceremonies. But with the constant revisions of the project, the later addition of 4 more days in competition and mainly the gigantic demands for tickets, the Organizing Committee decided to move the closing ceremony to the Stadium which held twice the capacity of the Saddledome.https://www.stampeders.com/mcmahon/ McMahon Stadium (Calgary Stampeders) Calgary Stampeders September 13, 2021 The last time that the two Winter Olympic ceremonies were held at the same venue was at the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California.Building on the Olympic Legacy Calgary Herald February 9, 2013 A15–A16 1285437444 The 1988 Winter Olympics' five main all-purpose venues were created at a significant cost at that time.Gerlach 2004 120 Three of them are located within Calgary and the other two are located west of the city. First, the Olympic Saddledome was planned to be the main venue of the games, hosting ice hockey and figure skating finals.This arena is also part of Stampede Park and was expected to cost C$83 million, but a cost overrun pushed it to nearly C$100 million and caused a nine-month delay. Second, the Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary for C$40 million. Contrary to what was proposed in the bid in which this infrastructure would be outdoors, throughout the process it was realized that it would have to be 100% covered and is the first fully enclosed 400-metre long track speed skating in the world, to protect the athletes and public from bitterly cold weather and the Chinook winds. Third, Canada Olympic Park (formerly called the Paskapoo Ski Hill) was renovated for C$200 million and is located on the western outskirts of Calgary. This most expensive venue of these Winter Olympics hosted the men's bobsleigh, luge, and men's ski jumping and its portion of the Nordic combined events. Also, it hosted some events of the demonstration sport of freestyle skiing. From the west of Calgary, the other two main all-purpose venues were built at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. First, the Canmore Nordic Centre was 90% funded by the province of Alberta, for C$17.3 million.Findling Pelle 1996 313 It is located beside the town of Canmore and it hosted cross-country skiing, plus its men's portion of the Nordic combined, and the men's biathlon events. It was projected that the area could become a year-round destination for Albertans, by facilitating and accelerate Canmore's economic transition away from coal mining to tourist attraction. However, the Nakiska (Cree meaning "to meet") ski resort was the most controversial and polemic complex built for these Winter Olympics. It is located on Mount Allan (inside Kananaskis Country) and it hosted the alpine skiing events.It cost around C$25 million to Alberta government funds. This venue drew a lot of criticisms because of the various environmental concerns, the rejection by International Ski Federation (FIS) of slopes for each of the 10 events in the program and the use of artificial snow due to the lack of natural snow on that season.Ireland Joanne https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XwFlAAAAIBAJ&pg=1020,320748 Mt. Allan weathers criticism Edmonton Journal December 11, 1986 February 14, 2013 E7 After the first inspections, the International Ski Federation (FIS) officials noted the venue's lack of technical difficulties needed for the Olympic competition. Therefore, these FIS delegates proposed some major changes in the slopes in an action to cause bigger difficulties. These modifications were met with praise from Olympic alpine skiing competitors.OCO'88 1988 137 Like at Canada Olympic Park, this venue also hosted some freestyle skiing events as a demonstration sport. Three other existing facilities served as secondary competition venues for the Games. The first one, was the Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration sports of curling and short track speed skating. The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena and the Stampede Corral shared the functions of secondary venues for the ice hockey tournament and the figure skating preliminaries. Though the Stampede Corral did not support the International Ice Hockey Federation's (IIHF) standard-sized Olympic ice surface, OCO'88 was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the ice rink for Olympic competition, in exchange for a C$1.2 million payment.Swift E. M. https://vault.si.com/vault/1987/03/09/countdown-to-the-cowtown-hoedown-undeterred-by-a-mostly-snowless-winter-calgary-is-busily-shining-its-boots-for-a-western-style-1988-winter-olympics-less-than-a-year-away https://web.archive.org/web/20201022005628/https://vault.si.com/vault/1987/03/09/countdown-to-the-cowtown-hoedown-undeterred-by-a-mostly-snowless-winter-calgary-is-busily-shining-its-boots-for-a-western-style-1988-winter-olympics-less-than-a-year-away dead October 22, 2020 Countdown to the Cowtown hoedown Sports Illustrated March 9, 1987 January 24, 2022 66 10 72–84 Participating National Olympic Committees A record 57 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) entered athletes at the 1988 Winter Olympics, with eight more NOCs than any other previous Olympic Winter Games.Phillips Angus https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1988/02/07/calgary-stands-proud-ready-as-olympics-host/5a3d633c-d0af-4a19-a549-0dcb1f09c687/ https://web.archive.org/web/20210610161547/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1988/02/07/calgary-stands-proud-ready-as-olympics-host/5a3d633c-d0af-4a19-a549-0dcb1f09c687/ live June 10, 2021 Calgary Stands Proud, Ready as Olympics Host; Smiles Prevail in Sub-Zero Conditions The Washington Post February 7, 1988 June 10, 2021 1,109 men and 315 women, for a total of 1,424 athletes, participated in these Games. Fiji, Guam, Guatemala, Jamaica, the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut in 1988. 400px|thumb|center|Participating NOCs Participating National Olympic Committees15em AND 1988 Winter 4 ARG 1988 Winter 15 AUS 1988 Winter 19 AUT 1988 Winter 81 BEL 1988 Winter 1 BOL 1988 Winter 6 BUL 1988 Winter 26 CAN 1988 Winter 112 (host) CHI 1988 Winter 5 CHN 1988 Winter 13 TPE 1988 Winter 13 CRC 1988 Winter 2 CYP 1988 Winter 3 TCH 1988 Winter 60 DEN 1988 Winter 1 GDR 1988 Winter 53 FIJ 1988 Winter 1 FIN 1988 Winter 53 FRA 1988 Winter 68 GBR 1988 Winter 48 GRE 1988 Winter 6 GUM 1988 Winter 1 GUA 1988 Winter 6 HUN 1988 Winter 5 ISL 1988 Winter 3 IND 1988 Winter 3 ITA 1988 Winter 58 JAM 1988 Winter 4 JPN 1988 Winter 48 LIB 1988 Winter 4 LIE 1988 Winter 13 LUX 1988 Winter 1 MEX 1988 Winter 11 MON 1988 Winter 3 MGL 1988 Winter 3 MAR 1988 Winter 3 NED 1988 Winter 11 AHO 1988 Winter 2 NZL 1988 Winter 9 PRK 1988 Winter 6 NOR 1988 Winter 63 PHI 1988 Winter 1 POL 1988 Winter 32 POR 1988 Winter 5 PUR 1988 Winter 9 ROM 1988 Winter 11 SMR 1988 Winter 5 KOR 1988 Winter 22 URS 1988 Winter 101 ESP 1988 Winter 12 SWE 1988 Winter 67 SUI 1988 Winter 70 TUR 1988 Winter 8 USA 1988 Winter 118 ISV 1988 Winter 6 FRG 1988 Winter 90 YUG 1988 Winter 22 Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees IOC Letter Code Country Athletes USA USA 1988 Winter 118 CAN CAN 1988 Winter 112 URS URS 1988 Winter 101 FRG FRG 1988 Winter 90 AUT AUT 1988 Winter 81 SUI SUI 1988 Winter 70 FRA FRA 1988 Winter 68 SWE SWE 1988 Winter 67 NOR NOR 1988 Winter 63 TCH TCH 1988 Winter 60 ITA ITA 1988 Winter 58 GDR GDR 1988 Winter 53 FIN FIN 1988 Winter 53 GBR GBR 1988 Winter 48 JPN JPN 1988 Winter 48 POL POL 1988 Winter 32 BUL BUL 1988 Winter 26 KOR KOR 1988 Winter 22 YUG YUG 1988 Winter 22 AUS AUS 1988 Winter 19 ARG ARG 1988 Winter 15 CHN CHN 1988 Winter 13 LIE LIE 1988 Winter 13 TPE TPE 1988 Winter 13 ESP ESP 1988 Winter 12 MEX MEX 1988 Winter 11 HOL NED 1988 Winter 11 ROM ROM 1988 Winter 11 NZL NZL 1988 Winter 9 PUR PUR 1988 Winter 9 TUR TUR 1988 Winter 8 BOL BOL 1988 Winter 6 GRE GRE 1988 Winter 6 GUA GUA 1988 Winter 6 PRK PRK 1988 Winter 6 ISV ISV 1988 Winter 6 CHI CHI 1988 Winter 5 HUN HUN 1988 Winter 5 POR POR 1988 Winter 5 SMR SMR 1988 Winter 5 AND AND 1988 Winter 4 JAM JAM 1988 Winter 4 LIB LIB 1988 Winter 4 CYP CYP 1988 Winter 3 ISL ISL 1988 Winter 3 IND IND 1988 Winter 3 MON MON 1988 Winter 3 MGL MGL 1988 Winter 3 MAR MAR 1988 Winter 3 CRC CRC 1988 Winter 2 AHO AHO 1988 Winter 2 BEL BEL 1988 Winter 1 DEN DEN 1988 Winter 1 FIJ FIJ 1988 Winter 1 GUM GUM 1988 Winter 1 LUX LUX 1988 Winter 1 PHI PHI 1988 Winter 1 Total 1,424 Sports There were 46 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines). In addition, there were 22 events in 4 demonstration sports and disciplines that have no official status in the overall medal tally. 10% 1988 Olympic Winter Games Sports program30em Alpine skiing 10 Biathlon 3 Bobsleigh 2 Cross country skiing 8 Figure skating 4 Ice hockey 1 Luge 3 Nordic combined 2 Ski jumping 3 Speed skating 10 10% Demonstration Sports (No official medals awarded) 20px Curling (2) (details) 20px Disabled skiing (4) (details) 20px Freestyle skiing (6) (details) 20px Short track speed skating (10) (details) Calendar All dates are in Mountain Time Zone (UTC-7) OCOpening ceremony●Event competitions1Event finalsCCClosing ceremony February13thSat14thSun15thMon16thTue17thWed18thThu19thFri20thSat21stSun22ndMon23rdTue24thWed25thThu26thFri27thSat28thSunEvents20px|alt=|link= Ceremonies OC CC 20px Alpine skiing1●11●1111111| 10 20px Biathlon111| 3 20px Bobsleigh●1●1 | 2 20px Cross country skiing11111111| 8 20px Figure skating●1●●1●●1●●1| 4 20px Ice hockey●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●1 | 1 20px Luge●1●11| 3 20px Nordic combined●1●1 | 2 20px Ski jumping111| 3 20px Speed skating1111111111 | 10 Daily medal events 4 2 2 4 2 2 5 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 446Cumulative total 4 6 8 12 14 16 21 25 28 31 33 35 38 42 46February13thSat14thSun15thMon16thTue17thWed18thThu19thFri20thSat21stSun22ndMon23rdTue24thWed25thThu26thFri27thSat28thSunTotal events Weather conditions The weather conditions were a problem facing OCO'88 during the Games, with temperatures ranging from -28 to 22 C.OCO'88 1988 193 After an unexpectedly freezing opening ceremony,International Olympic Committee 1988 23 the outdoor competitions scheduled to start the next day had to be postponed. This ended up affecting the men's downhill skiing event at Nakiska which was postponed for one day, due to Chinook winds blowing up to 160 km/h.OCO'88 1988 50 The women's downhill event also experienced the same scenario. With the ski jumping venue facing north at Canada Olympic Park (COP), the same winds also disrupted those events, with the large hill event being postponed four times.Wallechinsky Loucky 2009 295 It also disrupted the Nordic combined events, in which the ski jumping part had to be postponed as well. This situation ended up causing something unprecedented in the history of the Winter Olympics, as for the first time both the ski jumping and Nordic combined cross-country skiing events were contested in a single day.OCO'88 1988 94 Despite using artificial cooling, the bobsleigh and luge events did not need to be rescheduled; however, several races had to be postponed because of the high temperatures recorded and also because of the dirt that was carried away by these winds.Wallechinsky Loucky 2009 161 Preparations thumb|right|The official poster of the 1988 Winter Olympics Olympic organizing committee (OCO'88) The Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA) Board of Directors had originally 25 members. It was chaired by Frank King, followed by former Mayors Ralph Klein and Ross Alger, and other prominent Calgarians. The executive committee president was Robert Niven.CODA 1981 134 The Olympic Organizing Committee (OOC) was formed by utilizing many of the original board of directors members.OCO'88 1988 53 It was initially started with 11 members and was grown to 25 members by October 1983.OCO'88 1988 57 It grew further to 29 members by 1985, when former Alberta premier, Peter Lougheed, was added to the list.OCO'88 1988 61 An Olympic biographer, Kevin Wamsley, noted that the CEO Frank King, President Bill Pratt, Ralph Klein, and former COA President Roger Jackson had collectively the most influence on all aspects of these Winter Olympics. This organizing committee took a hierarchical form for planning these Olympics, which caused consternation from some staff, volunteers, and people in executive roles. The original staff, who were at odds with the current management structure, were either fired or willingly resigned. Also, there were claims that some of the volunteers were verbally abused. As a result, David Leighton resigned as OOC President in 1982, after only five months on the job. Therefore, Bill Pratt, a former general manager of the Calgary Stampede, became the new OCOG's president shortly afterwards.OCO'88 1988 53–54 The City of Calgary and the Canadian Olympic Association (COA) delegated officially all Olympic responsibilities, including staging the Winter Olympics under the Olympic Charter, to the newly formed OCO'88 in February and September 1983 respectively. However, conflicts within OCO'88 grew in the public eye and a review of the entire management structure was conducted after Ralph Klein threatened it with a public inquiry in 1986. Thus, Frank King remained as CEO, but with the addition of more full-time staff. Also, more than 9,000 volunteers were registered who were allocated to the most diverse areas. Despite these changes, there was still some animosity within OCO'88. Kevin Walmsley noted that Bill Pratt and Frank King continued to have a very tense relationship and that any movement caused sparks with each other. Some members of the media commented that the changes made further alienated the general public, with a host broadcaster producer, Ralph Mellanby, describing it as "an oilman's and cattleman's Calgary thing." Long-time IOC member Dick Pound, on behalf of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), went on record to say that the IOC grew increasingly frustrated, as it saw the actions of OCO'88 as a refusal to collaborate with them. Television List of 1988 Winter Olympics broadcasters The 1988 Winter Olympic Games coincided with a shift in television policy by the International Olympic Committee and growing enthusiasm by broadcasters in the United States. Amendments to the Olympic Charter in 1977 established a policy mandating joint television rights involving the IOC and the local organizing committee and was enshrined in the 1981 bid agreement for the Calgary games.Barney 2002 206 The joint negotiating committee convened in 1984 late-January, some weeks before the Sarajevo 1984 Winter Games at the IOC's president residency at the Lausanne Palace were held to negotiate the Calgary television contracts with American broadcasters.Abrams Bill Olympic Gold: How Networks Vied In Grueling Bidding For '88 Winter Games --- As Sarajevo Games Neared, ABC Won Calgary Prize; Is It Worth $309 Million? --- The Exasperating Coin Toss The Wall Street Journal February 22, 1984 1 397846430 The negotiating committee was represented by Dick Pound for the IOC, Bill Wardle for OCO'88 and consultant Barry Frank. The co-negotiating committee designed a new tender process for the television rights bid with an emphasis on creating a level playing field for all broadcasters. For the first time, the negotiations were based on a series of sealed bids and representatives from ABC, CBS and NBC vied for the opportunity to broadcast the Games.Barney 2002 206 After six rounds of sealed bids, the ABC delegation led by producer Roone Arledge was successful with an agreement paying a record 309 US million (386 CAD million Canadian at the time) in exchange for exclusive rights for the games.Barney 2002 205Barney 2002 209 CBS exited the bidding process after the second round with a final offer of $257 million, while ABC and NBC both reached the fifth round with an offer of $300 million.Barney 2002 206Barney 2002 209 In the sixth and final stage, the IOC and OCO'88 decided a coin flip would determine which of ABC or NBC had the right to submit the first bid or defer, a decision neither network supported.Barney 2002 209 NBC's president of sports Arthur A. Watson elected to call the coin-flip, although he remained silent on the first flip, so a second coinflip was required, and NBC won with a choice of "heads", and after 30 minutes of deliberation submitted a $304 million bid.Barney 2002 209 ABC's representative Arledge made a quick phone call to executive Fred Pierce, and ABC submitted a $309 million bid, exceeding NBC's bid by $5 million.Barney 2002 206Barney 2002 209 ABC's record-setting bid was immediately controversial, first Arledge had exceeded the maximum allowable bid set by ABC's executives by $34 million, and in the coming weeks ABC's coverage of the 1984 Winter Olympics which cost $91.5 millionCrosbie Cotton ABC to pay record $386 million https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OHZkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1582%2C1622966 Calgary Herald January 25, 1984 A1, B4 2258785084 returned poor Nielsen ratings.Barney 2002 205 Early estimates speculated the network would lose $50-$60 million televising the games.Barney 2002 205 The Wall Street Journal described the NBC agreement as the "biggest prize of the Winter Olympics".Barney 2002 205 The deal which was at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event, allowed OCO'88 to announce the Games would be debt-free.https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=LapeAAAAIBAJ&pg=5725,2674892 '88 Winter Olympics debt free thanks to television contract The Daily Times (Portsmouth, OH) January 25, 1984 February 15, 2013 9 The negotiations with American television broadcasters were in sharp contrast to negotiations for Western European rights with the European Broadcasting Union quickly closing an exclusive deal with the IOC for 5.7 US million led by Juan Antonio Samaranch and Marc Hodler on behalf of the IOC.Barney 2002 210 The Calgary Herald headline after the announcement negatively reflected on the "bargain" the European network received, and OCO'88 chairman Frank King publicly expressed his disappointment with the IOC.Barney 2002 210 Samaranch's argument for providing for a privileged negotiation with EBU was ensuring European viewers had equal access and coverage of the games, something he did not believe would occur if private networks from each nation were provided with the opportunity to bid.Barney 2002 210 Dick Pound was also critical of the decision and argued more revenue could be brought in from BBC and RAI alone and the privileged status suppressed the willingness of the EBU to make a market-value bid on the games.Barney 2002 211 The CTV Television Network won the bid to broadcast the Games in Canada in December 1983, paying 4.5 CAD million for the exclusive rights.Cotton Crosbie CTV gets Games contract Calgary Herald December 17, 1983 1 2259100773Perricone Mike Snags hit Winter Olympics Chicago Sun-Times December 28, 1986 100 257134552 CTV also won the $23.5 million contract to serve as the host broadcaster, responsible for the manpower and equipment to televise the games. In 1978, while the bid was strengthened, CBC and CTV signed an agreement that if Calgary were the eventual winner, the two broadcasters would create a consortium in which the purchase of television rights would take place jointly. The previous arrangement had CBC provide full coverage for Summer Games with CTV broadcasting a nightly summary, while CTV had the rights to Winter Games with CBC broadcasting a nightly summary.Canadian TV networks outline Olympics coverage Calgary Herald The Canadian Press July 27, 1984 B13 2258682887 The nightly summary of the Games was also televised on CBC.Bakogeorge Peter Era of big U.S. TV bucks for Olympics may be over https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfEyAAAAIBAJ&pg=5444%2C1856633 Ottawa Citizen Southam News February 22, 1987 D1 CalgaryPowers John No gold for ABC; Network to take Olympic-sized bath on rights fee The Boston Globe February 22, 1987 65 294418936 Japan's broadcast rights were awarded to NHK in July 1986 for 3.9 US million.Cotton Crosbie Japanese sign Games TV deal Calgary Herald July 3, 1986 B3 2258755711 https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EvhkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1056%2C753259 OCO'88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners. Now, the premier and main events, including ice hockey and figure skating, were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 15 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage.Kaufmann Bill The legacy games Calgary Sun: 88 ...when the world came to Calgary February 10, 2013 3–6 However, a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games. Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal. King described the timing of the contract with ABC as "the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary". The revenue growth from broadcasting was significant for the Calgary Games, OCO'88 generated $324.9 million in broadcast rights, which was a significant growth over an eight-period (the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated 20.7 US million).Gerlach 2004 119 ABC had net losses of more than $60 million, and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $243 million, a 20 per cent reduction compared to Calgary.https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1988/05/25/cbs-wins-rights-to-92-games/1f790435-2920-474f-9a47-95aebae98c62/ https://web.archive.org/web/20210610153154/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1988/05/25/cbs-wins-rights-to-92-games/1f790435-2920-474f-9a47-95aebae98c62/ dead June 10, 2021 CBS Wins Rights to '92 Games; $243 Million Paid For Winter Olympics The Washington Post New York May 25, 1988 June 10, 2021 Ticketing controversies A series of ticket-related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached, resulting in widespread public anger.https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mkQjAAAAIBAJ&pg=6474,7315868 Scandals plague Calgary Games Spokane Spokesman-Review February 13, 1987 February 18, 2013 29 Knight Ridder Demand for tickets was high, particularly for the main events which had sold out a year in advance. Residents had been promised that only 10 per cent of tickets would go to "Olympic insiders", IOC officials and sponsors, but OCO'88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders. The organizing committee, which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a "closed shop", admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets.Powers John https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=CIYkAAAAIBAJ&pg=3297,3817808 Olympic tickets, not weather, an issue in Calgary Beaver County Times March 18, 1987 February 18, 2013 2 These events were preceded by the ticketing manager for OCO'88 being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company's post office box rather than the office of the organizing committee. At that time, the American dollar was trading 40 cents higher than the Canadian dollar, resulting in significantly higher than anticipated revenue through currency conversion.https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pSNlAAAAIBAJ&pg=4681,3852117 Olympics' ticket boss faces fraud, theft charges Edmonton Journal October 31, 1986 February 18, 2013 A1OCO'88 1988 67 The ticket manager maintained his innocence claiming he was used as a scapegoat and sponsor credit card Visa was responsible for the error, despite his claims, the ticketing manager was convicted of fraud, theft, and forgery, and sentenced to 5 years in prison.Board Mike McGregor looking at day parol release Calgary Herald April 22, 1989 B3 Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $1.5 million to add 2,600 seats to the Saddledome, as well as increase capacity for ski jumping, alpine skiing and the opening ceremonies. This led to a change of the venue of the closing ceremonies from Saddledome to McMahon Stadium, as the stadium capacity was about two times bigger than the indoor venue. King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then-record 1.9 million tickets for sale, three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid and that 79 percent of them were to be allocated to Calgarians. By the start of the 1988 Winter Games, a record of over 1.4 million tickets had been sold,Powers John Calgary has a warm reception for Games The Boston Globe February 12, 1988 a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined.Janofsky Michael https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=571YAAAAIBAJ&pg=4944,1987693 Winter Olympics: boom or bust The Age (Melbourne), Green Guide February 4, 1988 February 23, 2013 8 In the OCO'88's final report, the Committee admits the culmination of fraud charges, a large portion of premier tickets requested by Olympic insiders, and poor communications led to a negative public reaction to the ticketing process. For the first time in the history of the Olympics, both summer and winter, the Organizing Committee worked with a refund policy for returned or unused tickets. When an event was postponed by at least 24 hours, the ticketholder was eligible for a refund. Due to weather issues, the 8 events that were scheduled for the first 24 hours had to be rescheduled, resulting in 130,000 ticket refunds totalling 2.9 CAD million, with transactions handled by the Royal Bank of Canada.OCO'88 1988 339 Community thumb|left|Hidy and Howdy were the mascots of the Calgary Games.|alt=Two polar bear mascots with fuzzy white fur. The female is wearing a blue dress, and the male a blue vest. They each wear a red bandana and cowboy hat. The city of Calgary, whose Calgary Stampede event relies heavily on volunteers, attracted over 22,000 people to sign up for more than 9,400 volunteer posts during the Olympics.Denton Herbert H. In 'Olympic City', a passion to be the perfect host The Washington Post February 27, 1988 306983991 D01 https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1988/02/27/in-olympic-city-a-passion-to-be-the-perfect-host/354a6794-645c-496d-9396-89a27a0f992a/ January 24, 2022 Also, for the first time, a "Homestay" program was created and several local families opened their homes to visitors from around the world, and others were renting their rooms or houses to those who could not stay in pay a reserve in a hotel. Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven, a decision which allowed the city's welcoming spirit to manifest.Ferguson Eva A city transformed Calgary Herald February 8, 2013 A13 1285311261 The Games' mascots, Hidy and Howdy, were designed to evoke images of "western hospitality".https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PXZkAAAAIBAJ&pg=3933,4173015 It's Hidy, Howdy Calgary Herald January 30, 1984 February 20, 2013 A1 The smiling, cowboy-themed polar bears were popular across Canada. Played by a team of 150 students from Bishop Carroll High School, the sister-brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead-up to the Games.Clarke Norm https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=YrsyAAAAIBAJ&pg=7018,3547771 Hidy and Howdy from the Calgary Olympics Spokane Spokesman-Review November 5, 1987 February 20, 2013 C2 From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games, the pair made about 50,000 appearances.OCO'88 1988 259 The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travellers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007.http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/city/story.html?id=8b0883b7-1ac1-4767-b917-c456302138e1 Hidy and Howdy still crowd favourite Calgary Herald January 7, 2008 Keteku Ian dead https://web.archive.org/web/20151130070921/http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/city/story.html?id=8b0883b7-1ac1-4767-b917-c456302138e1 November 30, 2015 243477349 B2 The mascot's names "Hidy" and "Howdy" were chosen by a public contest. Finances Revenue and Expenses for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games Organizing CommitteeOCO'88 1988 78–87 Revenue $CAD in thousands Television Rights 325,870 Tickets 41,936 Corporate Partners 88,016 Total Government ContributionsGovFunding Does not include capital expenditures by the Government of Canada (additional $151 million), Government of Alberta (additional $127 million) and City of Calgary (additional $43 million). 52,210 Government of Canada 49,000 Government of Alberta 3,000 Other 210 Recoveries 35,646 Interest 15,152 Revenue Total 558,830 Expenses $CAD in thousands FacilitiesGovFunding 88,416 Operations 95,983 Communications 29,660 Culture 23,189 Executive 6,956 Finance 42,437 Marketing 62,222 Sports 8,240 Team'88 Services 20,286 Technology 65,379 Contributions to Sports 78,425 Interest 2,620 Provision 2,951 Expenses Total 526,764 Surplus 32,066 The 1988 Winter Olympic Games were the most expensive Games, summer or winter, to be held at that time, with total expenses exceeding 879.6 CAD million.The Boston Globe lists the Games' expenses at 829 CAD million, while the OCO'88 reports the committee spent 558.8 CAD million, in addition to federal, provincial and municipal capital expenditures of 320.8 CAD million, resulting in a total of 879.6 CAD million. The total does not include services rendered by the three levels of government.OCO'88 1988 81–83 The high cost was anticipated, as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed. The venues, constructed primarily with public money, were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada's national winter sports teams.Anderson Merv https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OXZkAAAAIBAJ&pg=4347,2637101 Winter Games to jump-start the economy Calgary Herald January 26, 1984 February 23, 2013 H5 The record-breaking cost of the Calgary Olympics came in stark contrast to the original projections during the 1981 bid, which estimated a total cost of 218 CAD million, split between 126 CAD million in capital costs and 92 CAD million in operating costs.OCO'88 1988 85 The significant growth in capital expenditures came despite the three levels of government taking over projects which constituted nearly half of the original budgeted capital projects.OCO'88 1988 83 The primary source of revenue for OCO'88 was the lucrative television contracts, bringing in 325.9 CAD million (58.3 per cent of revenue), the absolute majority coming from American broadcasters, followed by corporate sponsorships at 88.0 CAD million (15.8 per cent of revenue), and ticket sales of 41.9 CAD million (7.5 per cent of revenue). Of the total expenses for the Games (879.6 CAD million), the Government of Canada contributed 200 CAD million (22.7 per cent), the Government of Alberta contributed 130 CAD million (14.8 per cent), and the City of Calgary contributed 43 CAD million (4.9 per cent). The 320.8 CAD million of government capital contributions not directly included in OCO'88's revenue statements included the Government of Canada constructing the 72.2 CAD million Canada Olympic Park,OCO'88 1988 111 and 40 CAD million for the Olympic Oval.OCO'88 1988 145 Provincial expenses included 14.4 CAD million to build the Canmore Nordic Centre,OCO'88 1988 101 and 25.3 CAD million to build Nakiska.OCO'88 1988 129 All three governments contributed to the 97.7 CAD million Olympic Saddledome. Of OCO'88's reported revenue of 526.8 CAD million, 110 CAD million was paid to the IOC as a share of television and market rights, and an additional 7 CAD million was paid to the United States Olympic Committee for rights to broadcast the Games in the United States, and 3 CAD million was reimbursed to NOC's for accommodation fees at the Games.OCO'88 1988 79 The Games were a major economic boom for the city, which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices three years before the games.Burns John F. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/sports/the-calgary-olympics-a-year-to-go-enthusiasm-prevails-but-concerns-remain.html A year to go; Enthusiasm prevails, but concerns remain The New York Times February 22, 1987 March 3, 2013 A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11,100 man-years of employment and generate 450 CAD million in salaries and wages.Maychak Matt https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=T18_AAAAIBAJ&pg=1037,3104983 Deja vu for Calgary Olympics? Windsor Star April 13, 1985 March 3, 2013 E3 In its post-Games report, OCO'88 estimated the Olympics created 1.4 CAD billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s, 70 percent within Alberta, as a result of capital spending, increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities. Torch relay 1988 Winter Olympics torch relay The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15, 1987, when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stelios Bisbas began what was called "the longest torch run in history".https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8o4iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=66oFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6212,4352591 Olympic torch begins journey to 1988 Winter Games The Item (Sumter, SC) November 16, 1987 March 10, 2013 4B The flame arrived in St. John's, Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days, travelled west across the then 10 Canadian provinces and two territories.OCO'88 1988 69OCO'88 1988 75 It passed through most major cities, north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik, Northwest Territories, then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria, British Columbia before returning east to Alberta, and finally Calgary.OCO'88 1988 241 The torch covered a distance of 18,000 km mi, the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Summer Olympics, and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Summer Olympics when the relay covered only 775 km mi.http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reference_documents_Factsheets/The_Olympic_Torch_relay.pdf Factsheet: The Olympic torch relay International Olympic Committee 2012 March 10, 2013 4–7 https://web.archive.org/web/20100622185712/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reference_documents_Factsheets/The_Olympic_Torch_relay.pdf June 22, 2010 dead The identity of the final torchbearer who would light the Olympic cauldron was one of the Organizing Committee's most closely guarded secrets.Busby Ian Secret Service Calgary Sun February 13, 2013 S3 The relay began at St. John's with Barbara Ann Scott and Ferd Hayward representing Canada's past Olympians and ended with Ken Read and Cathy Priestner carrying the torch into McMahon Stadium representing the nation's current Olympians.Robertson Johnson 1988 23 They then stopped to acknowledge the contribution of parathlete Rick Hansen and his "Man in Motion" tourhttp://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/base-de-donnees/olympiens/001064-119.01-e.php?q1=%22Hanson%2C+Rick%22&c1=athlete_list&brws=1&brws_s=1&PHPSESSID=b1p8aroa7dr5dd1jc6ol2vo0u7 Canadian Olympians "Canada's Cathy Preistner (left) and Ken Read (centre) receive the Olympic flame from Rick Hanson during the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary CP PHOTO and COA 1988 November 27, 2018 before handing the torch to 12-year-old Robyn Perry, an aspiring figure skater who was selected to represent the future of the Olympic Movement three years before the IOC changed the year of the Winter Games, to light the cauldron.Robertson Johnson 1988 25 Olympic Torch thumb|right|1988 Winter Olympic Torch The design of the Olympic Torch for the Calgary games was a reproduction of the main landmark building of the Calgary skyline, the Calgary Tower.OCO'88 1988 249 The National Research Council Canada developed the design for the Torch, the base of the torch is made of maple wood, the national tree of Canada, aluminum, and hardened steel, all 100% collected in Canadian territory. The torch was designed to remain lit despite the extreme conditions of Canadian winters.Bradley Jeff https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=clxWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C_ADAAAAIBAJ&pg=2167,1848905 Torch run starts Calgary Olympics Spokane Spokesman-Review November 18, 1987 March 26, 2013 D1 The Torch had to be light enough for relay runners to carry comfortably, and the final design came in at 60 centimetres in length and 1.7 kilograms in weight.Norris Alexander https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=e8QyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ou8FAAAAIBAJ&pg=2320,5358107 Ottawa research team basks in glow of Olympic torch Ottawa Citizen November 29, 1986 March 26, 2013 A10 The maple handle portion included laser-incised pictograms of the 10 official Olympic Winter sports, and lettering was engraved on the steel caldron portion. The torch used a mixed type of three fuels (gasoline, kerosene and alcohol) to allow a continuous burn during the unpredictable Canadian winter. Approximately 100 torches were manufactured for the Games. Event highlights The 1988 Winter Games began on the afternoon of February 13 with a $10 million opening ceremony in front of 60,000 spectators at McMahon Stadium that featured 5,500 performers,Janofsky Michael https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/13/sports/88-winter-olympics-spruced-up-calgary-is-ready-to-light-the-torch.html Spruced-Up Calgary Is Ready to Light the Torch The New York Times February 13, 1988 March 11, 2013 an aerial flyover by the Royal Canadian Air Force's Snowbirds,Dempsey 2002 597 the parade of nations and the release of 1,000 homing pigeons. Canadian composer David Foster performed the instrumental theme song ("Winter Games") and its vocal version ("Can't You Feel It?"),OCO'88 1988 297 while internationally recognized Canadian folk/country musicians Gordon Lightfoot singing Alberta Bound and Ian Tyson performing Four Strong Winds were among the featured performers.http://www.canada2010.gc.ca/101/coc/010404-eng.cfm Olympic Ceremonies: Calgary 1988 Government of Canada March 18, 2013 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20131120072923/http://www.canada2010.gc.ca/101/coc/010404-eng.cfm November 20, 2013 Governor General Jeanne Sauvé opened the Games on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II as an estimated 1.5 billion people watched the ceremony.16 days in February... Day 1 Calgary Sun: 88 ...when the world came to Calgary February 10, 2013 8PM: Governor General will open Vancouver Olympics Associated Press June 28, 2009 thumb|upright|left|Katarina Witt won gold in women's figure skating|alt=A female figure skater points with her right arm as she performs The weather was a dominant story throughout much of the Games, as strong chinook winds that brought daily temperatures as high as 17 °C °F wreaked havoc on the schedules for outdoor events. Events were delayed when winds were deemed unsafe for competitors and organizers used artificial snow making equipment to ensure skiing venues were properly prepared.Gaul John https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oG8pAAAAIBAJ&pg=2987,7107136 Chinook allows events to breeze along Sydney Morning Herald February 25, 1988 March 11, 2013 44 It was the first time in Olympic history that alpine events were held on artificial snow.Wallechinsky Loucky 2009 7 The Games were also marred by the death of the Austrian ski team's doctor, Joerg Oberhammer, on February 25 after a collision with another skier threw him underneath a working snow grooming machine at Nakiska, crushing and killing him instantly. The incident was ruled an accident.https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=T4IwAAAAIBAJ&pg=1978,5063716 Austrian ski team's doctor killed in accident Lakeland Ledger February 27, 1988 March 11, 2013 4D The top individual competitors at the Olympics were Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip as they each won three gold medals. Italy's Alberto Tomba won gold in two skiing events, his first of five career Olympic medals en route to becoming the first alpine skier to win medals at three Winter Games.Where are they now? Calgary Herald February 8, 2013 A14 East Germany's Katarina Witt defended her 1984 gold medal in women's figure skating, capturing a second gold in Calgary. Her compatriot Christa Rothenburger won the gold medal in the 1000 metre race in speed skating, then went on to win a silver medal in the team sprint cycling event at the 1988 Summer Games to become the only person in Olympic history to win medals at both Olympic Games in the same year. The Soviet Union won gold in ice hockey as Nordic neighbours Finland and Sweden took silver and bronze, respectively.Wallechinsky Loucky 2009 32 As it had in 1976, Canada again failed to win an official gold medal as the host of an Olympic Games.http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/featured/canada-at-the-winter-olympics https://web.archive.org/web/20120208225242/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/featured/canada-at-the-winter-olympics dead February 8, 2012 Canada at the Winter Olympics Historica-Dominion Institute of Canada March 11, 2013 Canadians won three gold medals in demonstration events, including by Sylvie Daigle as one of her five medals in short-track speed skating.http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/women/030001-1504-e.html Celebrating women's achievements – Sylvie Daigle Library and Archives Canada March 11, 2013 Canada's top official performances came in figure skating where Brian Orser and Elizabeth Manley each won silver medals. Promoted by the media as the "Battle of the Brians"—the competition between Orser and American rival Brian Boitano—and the "Battle of the Carmens"—between Witt and American rival Debi Thomas, who had both elected to skate to Bizet's Carmen in their long programs—were the marquee events of the Games. Boitano won the gold medal over Orser by one-tenth of a point.Busby Ian http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/20/calgary-88-day-8----the-battle-of-the-brians Calgary '88 Day 8 -- The Battle of the Brians Calgary Sun February 19, 2013 March 11, 2013 https://web.archive.org/web/20151207134813/http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/20/calgary-88-day-8----the-battle-of-the-brians December 7, 2015 dead Witt won the gold while Thomas won the bronze medal.Bonk Thomas February 29, 1988 WINTER OLYMPICS : Calgary Stages Warm Goodby to Games https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-02-29-sp-241-story.html Los Angeles Times April 25, 2021 Manley was not viewed as a medal contender, but skated the greatest performance of her career to come within a fraction of Witt's gold medal-winning score. American speed skater Dan Jansen's personal tragedy was one of the more poignant events of the Games as he skated the 500 metre race mere hours after his sister Jane died of leukemia.Weinberg Rick https://www.espn.com/espn/espn25/story?page=moments/87 87: Jansen falls after learning of sister's death ESPN March 13, 2013 June 9, 2004 A gold medal favourite, Jansen chose to compete as he felt it is what his sister would have wanted. Viewers around the world witnessed his heartbreak as he fell and crashed into the outer wall in the first quarter of his heat.Day of Tragedy for Speed Skater Ends with Fall https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1988/02/15/day-of-tragedy-for-speed-skater-ends-with-fall/c25c5e39-bf98-47f5-a906-802375717c8c/ 1988-02-15 Phillips Angus June 10, 2021 The Washington Post In the 1000 metre race four days later, Jansen was on a world record pace when he again fell. After failing again in Albertville, Jansen finally won a gold medal at the 1994 Lillehamer Games.Odland Kristen http://www2.canada.com/calgaryherald/features/olympics/story.html?id=6b33cbed-946d-40ed-9abb-d7687ba19a89 https://archive.today/20130410164125/http://www2.canada.com/calgaryherald/features/olympics/story.html?id=6b33cbed-946d-40ed-9abb-d7687ba19a89 dead April 10, 2013 Jansen's journey to new life Calgary Herald February 10, 2008 March 13, 2013 thumb|right|The Netherlands' Yvonne van Gennip (left) won three gold medals in Calgary|alt=A woman with shoulder length, curly hair and a man with short, curly hair bump fists. They are both in white coats with dark shoulders One of the most popular athletes from the games was British ski jumper Michael Edwards, who gained infamy by placing last in both the 70 and 90 metre events finishing 70 and 53 points behind his next closest competitor, respectively.OCO'88 1988 600–603 Edwards' "heroic failure" made him an instant celebrity; he went from earning £6,000 per year as a plasterer before the Games to making £10,000 per hour per appearance afterward.McGrath Nick https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/fameandfortune/9089901/Eddie-the-Eagle-I-went-from-6000-a-year-to-10000-an-hour.html https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/fameandfortune/9089901/Eddie-the-Eagle-I-went-from-6000-a-year-to-10000-an-hour.html January 12, 2022 subscription live Eddie the Eagle: 'I went from £6,000 a year to £10,000 an hour' The Daily Telegraph (London) February 19, 2012 March 13, 2013 Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created, the IOC altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events.Belsom Ken Eddie the Eagle Soars With His Feet Mostly on the Ground https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/19/sports/olympics/eddie-the-eagle-soars-with-his-feet-mostly-on-the-ground.html The New York Times January 18, 2014 November 24, 2020 Regardless, the President of the Organizing Committee, Frank King, playfully saluted Edwards' unorthodox sporting legacy, which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film, Eddie the Eagle.Kelton Simon Eddie the Eagle: the story behind the film https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/ski/articles/eddie-the-eagle-film-true-story/ https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/ski/articles/eddie-the-eagle-film-true-story/ January 12, 2022 live The Daily Telegraph March 15, 2016 November 11, 2020 subscription The Jamaican bobsleigh team, making their nation's Winter Olympic debut, was also popular in Calgary. The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team.Busby Ian http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/22/jamaican-bobsleigh-team-won-over-calgary-crowds Jamaican bobsleigh team won over Calgary crowds Calgary Sun February 21, 2013 March 13, 2013 https://web.archive.org/web/20140913175548/http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/22/jamaican-bobsleigh-team-won-over-calgary-crowds September 13, 2014 dead Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two-man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame. The pair, along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes, crashed in the four-man event, but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line. Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings, a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures.Harrington Richard https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1993/10/01/cool-runnings-miracle-on-sand/ac9dc169-2329-42b7-8942-3fcce2f9250d/ https://web.archive.org/web/20210610161245/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1993/10/01/cool-runnings-miracle-on-sand/ac9dc169-2329-42b7-8942-3fcce2f9250d/ live June 10, 2021 'Cool Runnings': Miracle on Sand The Washington Post October 1, 1993 June 10, 2021 Medal table 1988 Winter Olympics medal table right|upright=1.35|thumb|A set of medals from the Games on display at the Scotiabank Saddledome in Calgary. right|thumb|Postage stamp depicting Matti Nykänen at the Calgary Winter Olympic Games Canada flagIOC 1988 Winter 11 9 9 9 10 6 5 5 5 4 1 2 4 0 2 3 5 2 3 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 3 2 0 2 3 yes 0 2 1 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 Podium sweeps +DateSportEventNOCGoldSilverBronzeFebruary 18Luge Women's singlesGDR 1988 WinterSteffi Walter-MartinUte Oberhoffner-WeißCerstin SchmidtFebruary 25Cross-country skiing Women's 20 kilometre freestyleURS 1988 WinterTamara TikhonovaAnfisa ReztsovaRaisa Smetanina Records in speed skating All of the long track world (WR) and Olympic records (OR) that occurred during these Games were later broken at succeeding Winter Olympics and other world events. +DateEventNOCNameTimeFebruary 14Men's 500 metresGDR 1988 WinterUwe-Jens Mey36.45 (WR)February 17Men's 5000 metresSWE 1988 WinterTomas Gustafson6:44.63 (OR)February 18Men's 1000 metresURS 1988 WinterNikolay Gulyayev1:13.03 (OR)February 20Men's 1500 metresGDR 1988 WinterAndré Hoffmann1:52.06 (WR)February 21Men's 10000 metresSWE 1988 WinterTomas Gustafson13:48.20 (WR)February 22Women's 500 metresUSA 1988 WinterBonnie Blair39.10 (WR)February 23Women's 3000 metresNED 1988 WinterYvonne van Gennip4:11.94 (WR)February 26Women's 1000 metresGDR 1988 WinterChrista Luding-Rothenburger1:17.65 (WR)February 27Women's 1500 metresNED 1988 WinterYvonne van Gennip2:00.68 (OR)February 28Women's 5000 metresNED 1988 WinterYvonne van Gennip7:14.13 (WR) Legacy thumb|Canada Olympic Park in 2006 Prior to 1988, the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second-rate event, in comparison to the Summer Olympics. The IOC had, at one point, considered eliminating it altogether. First, there are only a few mountainous areas in the world that would be able to host the Winter Olympics. Second, there were major challenges in generating revenues for the host city and the IOC from such Games.Nilson Chris A lasting impact on the Games Calgary Herald February 9, 2013 A13 1285437448 However, CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenues to make a profit but have enough money left over to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sports development. OCO'88 followed mainly the example of LAOOC which organized the 1984 Summer Olympics. Under LAOOC's president, Peter Ueberroth, he was able to attract a large United States television contract and Los Angeles became the first Olympic host city to make a profit. For the 1988 Winter Olympics, OCO'88 attracted financial support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations, in order to generate millions of dollars in revenues. For OCO'88, it foresaw some winter sports, like the debut of the Super-G and other new winter sports events, as a way to increase the audience's appeal of the Winter Olympics. Thus, for the sponsors, the Games' length of time to 15 days provided an extra weekend of Olympic media coverage to the world. This additional programming time was filled mainly by TV-friendly demonstration events that are popular in Canada. The 1988 Winter Olympics' exposure to curling, freestyle skiing, and short track speed skating events in Calgary influenced the worldwide popularity of all of them. So much so that all these events became the new and official Olympic finals in the period between the 1992 Winter Olympics to the 2002 Winter Olympics. Impact on Calgary Hosting the Winter Olympics helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary's reputation on the world stage. Crosbie Cotton, a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city's Olympic odyssey from its 1979 initiative to the closing ceremonies, noted an increased positive outlook of the city's population over time. He believed that the populace began to outgrow its "giant inferiority complex" that is "typically Canadian", by replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached.Cotton Crosbie https://vault.si.com/vault/1988/02/29/702657#&gid=ci0258c115702026ef&pid=702657---098---image https://web.archive.org/web/20210808050726/https://vault.si.com/vault/1988/02/29/702657#&gid=ci0258c115702026ef&pid=702657---098---image dead August 8, 2021 The party's almost over Sports Illustrated 98 February 29, 1988 August 7, 2021 68 9 This outcome helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre, best known for the Calgary Stampede, to a destination for international political, economic, and sporting events. A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Winter Olympics, (VANOC), claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007, due to the facilities it had constructed for these Olympic Games.Legacies of North American Olympic Winter Games http://www.vancouver2010.com/en/about-vanoc/organizing-committee/public-communications/reports/legacies-of-north-american-olympic/-/33488/qy26fo/index.html https://web.archive.org/web/20090923143622/http://www.vancouver2010.com/en/about-vanoc/organizing-committee/public-communications/reports/legacies-of-north-american-olympic/-/33488/qy26fo/index.html May 7, 2007 September 23, 2009 live March 16, 2013 The Games' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts in making them "everybody's Games." Aside from the sense of community fostered by the high level of volunteer support, OCO'88 included the general public in other ways. For example, the citizens were given an opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it. Those bricks were used to build the Olympic Plaza, where the medal ceremonies were held in 1988. It remains a popular public park and event site in the city's downtown core today.Gorrell Mike After Falling in Love With the '88 Games, Calgary Still Carries a Torch for the Olympics Salt Lake Tribune February 4, 1998 A1 After the success of these Olympic Games, Calgary was wanting to bring back the Olympic experience again. It offered, to the IOC, in becoming a possible alternate host city of the 2002 Winter Olympics, after a bidding scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would not be able to remain the host city.https://www.economist.com/international/1999/01/28/city-of-latter-day-scandal City of latter-day scandal The Economist January 28, 1999 June 10, 2021 subscription 350 8104 Next, the city was attempting to be Canada's bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics, but the COC decided to give it to Vancouver and Whistler.Vancouver-Whistler to bid for 2010 Winter Games Associated Press December 1, 1998 Later, a 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81% of respondents said they would support the idea of hosting another Winter Olympics.Moharib Nadia http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/09/olympic-dreams-still-burning-for-calgary-fans-of-the-games Olympic dreams still burning for Calgary fans of the Games Calgary Sun February 9, 2013 March 18, 2013 https://web.archive.org/web/20151207050327/http://www.calgarysun.com/2013/02/09/olympic-dreams-still-burning-for-calgary-fans-of-the-games December 7, 2015 dead On November 13, 2018, Calgary held a public non-binding plebiscite on whether it should bid to host the 2026 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. On November 19, 2018, the results of the plebiscite showed that 56.4% (171,750) of eligible voters said "No", while 43.6% (132,832) of them said "Yes." Therefore, the city council concluded that the bid would be withdrawn.https://www.calgary.ca/CSPS/Recreation/Pages/Calgary-2026-Olympic-bid/Olympics-Bid-2026.aspx?redirect=/2026games Potential bid for the 2026 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games Recreation June 22, 2016 www.calgary.ca en-CAN September 20, 2019 Canada's development as a winter sport nation thumb|upright=1.15|right|Canada increased its medal totals in each successive Winter Games from Calgary until Vancouver in 2010. In light of the 1976 Summer Olympics' disastrous financial legacy,https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-s-big-owe-stadium-debt-is-over-1.602530 Quebec's Big Owe stadium debt is over Canadian Broadcasting Corporation December 19, 2006 July 24, 2021 the Calgary Olympic organizing committee, OCO'88, parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues, along with the three levels of government support, into what was ultimately a C$170 million surplus. While OCO'88 reported officially a surplus after the Games were over, the accounting practices of the final report did not include federal, provincial, and municipal capital and operations funding infrastructures.Walkom Thomas https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/427323571.html?FMT=ABS https://web.archive.org/web/20120725055740/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/427323571.html?FMT=ABS dead July 25, 2012 The Olympic myth of Calgary: Making money; Be prepared to spend, spend, spend is lesson for any host city Toronto Star February 8, 1999 March 14, 2013Tombe Trevor The financial mess of the Olympic Winter Games — 'Can you feel it?' https://financialpost.com/opinion/the-financial-mess-of-the-olympic-winter-games-can-you-feel-it January 8, 2021 National Post June 23, 2016 The overall surplus was turned into endowment funds that were split between Canada Olympic Park (C$110 million) and CODA. They were subsequently reformed later, in order to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had grown steadily to be worth over C$200 million by 2013. Consequently, all five primary facilities built for the 1988 Winter Olympics remained operational for their intended purposes, 25 years after the Games concluded.Spencer Donna Calgary's 1988 Winter Games legacy thriving because of rainy-day dollars https://globalnews.ca/news/391380/calgarys-1988-winter-games-legacy-thriving-because-of-rainy-day-dollars/ June 10, 2021 Global News The Canadian Press February 11, 2013 Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sports in Canada, as CODA (now known as WinSport) established itself as the nation's leader in developing elite winter athletes. For the 2006 Winter Olympics, a quarter of Canada's Olympic winter athletes were from the Calgary region and three-quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta. Before 1988, Canada was not a winter sports power. The nation's five overall medals won in Calgary was its second-best total at a Winter Olympics, behind the seven overall medals it won at the 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York.https://olympic.ca/games/1932-lake-placid/ Lake Placid 1932 Canadian Olympic Committee August 11, 2011 August 5, 2021 After 1988, Canada won an increasing number of gold and overall medals at each successive Winter Olympics.Marsh James https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/winter-olympic-games Canada at the Olympic Winter Games Historica Canada February 26, 2018 August 5, 2021 It culminated in an overall performance of 26 medals won at the 2010 Winter Olympics, which included the previous Olympic record of 14 gold medals.Walde Paul https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/a-record-haul-a-nations-triumph/article4308333/ A record haul, a nation's triumph Globe and Mail February 28, 2010 March 16, 2013 Until 2010, Norway won the most Olympic gold medals on home soil at the 1952 Winter Olympics. However, Norway recaptured the record of winning the most Olympic gold medals at a single Winter Olympics in 2022, claiming 16. At the 2018 Winter Olympics, Canada earned its highest overall medal count in the Winter Olympics to date, with a total of 29 medals.https://olympic.ca/games/2018-pyeongchang/ PyeongChang 2018 Canadian Olympic Committee August 10, 2011 August 7, 2021 See also Canada Sports 1988 Winter Olympics References Notes Citations Official reports Calgary Olympic Development Association Calgary, Canada (Candidature File) 1981 Calgary Olympic Development Association Calgary https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-56437 English, French CODA 1981 Dunn Bob Official Souvenir Program – XV Olympic Winter Games XV Olympic Winter Games Organizing Committee 1987 International Olympic Committee Calgary '88, the Official Book of the International Olympic Committee: Come Together, Ensemble: 13th-28th February, 1988 1988 The Committee ((OCO'88)) XV Olympic Winter Games: Official Report XV Olympic Winter Games Organizing Committee 1988 https://library.olympic.org/Default/digital-viewer/c-43821 0-921060-26-2 English, French Robertson Lloyd Lloyd Robertson Johnson Brian D. Brian D. Johnson The Official Commemorative Book: XV Olympic Winter Games 1988 Key Porter Books Toronto 978-1-55013-059-1 https://archive.org/details/officialcommemor0000robe registration Works cited Barney Robert Knight Bob Barney Selling the Five Rings: The International Olympic Committee and the Rise of Olympic Commercialism 2002 The University of Utah Press Salt Lake City 978-0-87480-713-4 https://archive.org/details/sellingfiverings00barn registration Dempsey Daniel V. A Tradition of Excellence: Canada's Airshow Team Heritage High Flight Enterprises 2002 0-9687817-0-5 Findling John E. Pelle Kimberly D. Historical dictionary of the modern Olympic movement 1996 Greenwood Press Westport, Conn. 0-313-28477-6 https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00find registration Gerlach Larry The Winter Olympics – From Chamonix to Salt Lake City The University of Utah Press 2004 0-87480-778-6 Podnieks Andrew Andrew Podnieks Canada's Olympic Hockey History 1920–2010 Fenn Publishing 2009 978-1-55168-323-2 registration https://archive.org/details/canadasolympicho0000podn Wallechinsky David David Wallechinsky Loucky Jaime The complete book of the Winter Olympics 2009 Aurum London 978-1-84513-491-4 2010 https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781845134914 registration Further reading King Frank W. It's how you play the game : the inside story of the Calgary Olympics 1991 Script, the Writers' Group Calgary 978-0-9694287-5-6 https://archive.org/details/itshowyouplaygam0000king registration Zimmerman Kate Legacies of North American Olympic Winter Games – Volume 2: Calgary 1988 2007 Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games Vancouver https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-30973 External links Ddaw1TeQOfw The Official Calgary 1988 Winter Olympic Film 1988 Winter Olympics Olympic Review, March 1988 – Official results CBC Digital Archives – The Winter of '88: Calgary's Olympic Games woly Sarajevo XV Olympic Winter GamesCalgary 1988 Albertville Olympics Canada Sports 1980s Category:Sports competitions in Calgary Category:Winter multi-sport events in Canada Category:Olympic Games in Canada Category:Winter Olympics by year Category:1988 in multi-sport events Winter Olympics Category:February 1988 sports events in Canada Category:1980s in Calgary