19th-century domes

Domes built in the 19th century benefited from more efficient techniques for iron production and steel production, as well as advances in structural analysis. Metal-framed domes of the 19th century often imitated earlier masonry dome designs in a variety of styles, especially in church architecture, but were also used to create glass domes over shopping arcades and hothouses, domes over locomotive sheds and exhibition halls, and domes larger than any others in the world. The variety of domed buildings, such as parliaments and capitol buildings, gasometers, observatories, libraries, and churches, were enabled by the use of reinforced concrete ribs, lightweight papier-mâché, and triangulated framing. Developments Materials New production techniques allowed for cast iron and wrought iron to be produced both in larger quantities and at relatively low prices during the Industrial Revolution.Gayle Gayle 1998 14 Most iron domes were built with curved iron ribs arranged radially from the top of the dome to a ring at the base. The material of choice for domes changed over the course of the 19th century from cast iron to wrought iron to steel.Sutherland 2000 111 Excluding domes that simply imitated multi-shell masonry, the century's chief development of the simple domed form may be metal-framed domes such as the circular dome of Halle au Blé in Paris and the elliptical dome of the Royal Albert Hall in London.Mainstone 2001 241 The practice of building rotating domes for housing large telescopes became popular in the 19th century, with early examples using papier-mâché to minimize weight.Lippincott 2008 26 Beginning in the late 19th century, the Guastavino family, a father and son team who worked on the eastern seaboard of the United States, further developed the masonry dome. They perfected a traditional Spanish and Italian technique for light, center-less vaulting using layers of tiles in fast-setting cement set flat against the surface of the curve, rather than perpendicular to it. The father, Rafael Guastavino, innovated with the use of Portland cement as the mortar, rather than the traditional lime and gypsum mortars, which allowed mild steel bar to be used to counteract tension forces.Mainstone 2001 129 Although domes made entirely from reinforced concrete were not built before 1900, the church of Saint-Jean-de-Montmartre was designed by Anatole de Baudot with a small brick shell dome with reinforced concrete ribs.Cowan 1983 191 St. Ursula Parish Church de St. Ursula (München) in Munich, Germany, was built between 1894 and 1897 with a dome of two lightweight concrete shells, using reinforcing rings only in the underlying octagonal tambour. The 11.2 m ft mid -wide us hemispherical inner dome is 15 cm thick with eight ribs on its outer surface increasing that thickness to 29 cm. The outer octagonal cloister vault is 11.8 meters wide and 16 cm thick. An artificial stone called "Schwemm-stein" de Schwemmstein was used as a porous aggregate. Neither dome included reinforcement, although iron bars have been detected at irregular distances in the outer dome that may have been part of the formwork needed for the building process, and which may act as partial reinforcement.Rehm 2018 175–181 Other concrete domes at this time included a music pavilion in Hoppegarten (1887–1888), the Monier-dome of the mausoleum of Emperor Frederick III in Potsdam (1889), and a dome above the foyer of the Brunner banking house in Brussels (1892–1895).Rehm 2018 181 Structure Proportional rules for an arch's thickness to span ratio were developed during the 19th century, based on catenary shape changes in response to weight loads, and these were applied to the vertical forces in domes.Cowan 1977 17 The first studies on domes' limit thickness were published in 1855 by Kobell.Huerta 2001 58 Mathematical analysis of domes were published by Eytelwein (1808), Dietlein de Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Dietlein (1823), Persy (1834), Kobell (1855), Scheffler (1857), and Michon (1857), but the methods were not used by architects and engineers.Huerta 2008 309 Edmund Beckett Denison, who had published a proof on the subject in 1871, wrote in a Domes article in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica that the thickness to span ratio was lower for a dome than it was for an arch due to the more distributed loads of a dome.Cowan 1977 17 The first studies of collapse mechanisms for domes were published in 1877 by Beckett.Huerta 2001 58 Ideas on linear elasticity were formalized in the 19th century.Bellini 2017 3 The first graphical analysis of domes was published in 1879 by Wittmann, allowing the line of thrust to be determined, and it was used by other German authors. The 1878 graphical method by Henry Turner Eddy to calculate compressive and tensile hoop forces was applied to masonry domes of revolution in any form in 1881 by August Föppl and it was used in America beginning around 1900.Huerta 2008 310, 311–312 The span of the ancient Pantheon dome, although matched during the Renaissance, remained the largest in the world until the middle of the 19th century.Cowan 1983 183 The large domes of the 19th century included exhibition buildings and functional structures such as gasometers and locomotive sheds.Kohlmaier Von Sartory 1991 126 Domes made of radial trusses were analyzed with a "plane frame" approach, rather than considering three dimensions, until an 1863 Berlin gasometer dome design by engineer Johann Wilhelm Schwedler that became known as the "Schwedler dome". He published the theory behind five such domes and a structural calculation technique in 1866. Schwedler's work on these axially symmetric shells was expanded by August Föppl in 1892 to apply to "other shell-type truss frameworks".Kurrer 2012 By the 1860s and 1870s, German and other European engineers began to treat iron domes as collections of short straight beams with hinged ends, resulting in light openwork structures. Other than in glasshouses, these structures were usually hidden behind ceilings.Sutherland 2000 116, 118 Dome types that used lengths of rolled steel with riveted joints included "Schwedler domes", "Zimmermann domes", "lattice domes", and "Schlink domes".Kurrer 2012 According to Irene Giustina, dome construction was one of the most challenging architectural problems until at least the end of the 19th century, due to a lack of knowledge about statics.Giustina 2003 1033 Rafael Guastavino's use of the recent development of graphic statics enabled him to design and build inexpensive funicular domes with minimal thickness and no scaffolding. The vaults were typically 3 inches thick and workers, standing on the completed portions, used simple templates, wires, and strings to align their work.Allen 2004 69, 71 Style The historicism of the 19th century led to many domes being re-translations of the great domes of the past, rather than further stylistic developments, especially in sacred architecture.Stephenson Hammond Davi 2005 190 The Neoclassical style popular at this time was challenged in the middle of the 19th century by a Gothic Revival in architecture, in what has been termed the "Battle of the Styles". This lasted from about 1840 to the beginning of the 20th century, with various styles within Classicism, such as Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococo revivals, also vying for popularity. The last three decades of this period included unusual combinations of these styles.Miller Clinch 1998 30 Religious and royal buildings The Royal Stables at Brighton Pavilion were designed by William Porden and built from 1804 to 1808 in an Orientalist style for the Prince of Wales. The circular courtyard of the stable block, 85 ft m flip in diameter, was domed with laminated timber and glass, evidently inspired by the similar dome over the Halle aux blés in Paris. The three-layer wooden ribs were supported horizontally by wooden purlins and iron chains. An oculus was covered by a lantern shaped as a coronet on the exterior. It was converted into a concert hall in 1934 and redecorated in an Art Deco style.Tyack 2015 141, 144, 147–148, 155 The rotunda dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was replaced from 1808 to 1810 after a fire and replaced again from 1868 to 1870.Freeman-Grenville 1987 188; 195 The dome completed in 1870 was a Russian design made with wrought iron arches.Perkin 1981 10 thumb|left|Kazan Cathedral and Saint Isaac's Cathedral (background) in Russia. Iron domes offered the lightness of timber construction along with incombustibility and higher strength, allowing for larger spans. Because domes themselves were relatively rare, the first examples made from iron date well after iron began to be used as a structural material.Sutherland 2000 111 Iron was used in place of wood where fire resistance was a priority. In Russia, which had large supplies of iron, some of the earliest examples of the material's architectural use can be found. Andrey Voronikhin built a large wrought iron dome over Kazan Cathedral in Saint Petersburg.Gayle Gayle 1998 13, 18, 26 Built between 1806 and 1811, the 17.7 m ft mid -wide us outer dome of the cathedral was one of the earliest iron domes.Skempton 2002 785 The iron outer dome covers two masonry inner domes and is made of 15 mm thick sheets set end to end.Sutherland 2000 112 St. George's Church in Edinburgh was built from 1811 to 1814 by Robert Reid with a dome modeled after that of St. Paul's Cathedral.Richardson 2001 49 An early example of an iron dome in Britain is the fanciful iron-framed dome over the central building of the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, begun in 1815 by John Nash, the personal architect of King George IV.Gayle Gayle 1998 23 The dome was not one of the prominent onion domes but instead the dome-like structure of twelve cast iron ribs resting on cast iron columns over Henry Holland's earlier saloon. It was completed in 1818–1819.Sutherland 2000 112 The neoclassical Baltimore Basilica, designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe like the Roman Pantheon for Bishop John Carroll, was begun in 1806 and dedicated in 1821, although the porch and towers would not be completed until the 1870s. An influence on the interior design may have been the Church of St. Mary in East Lulworth, England, where Bishop Carroll had been consecrated.Alexander 2004 71–73 The central dome is 72 ft m flip in diameter and 52 ft m flip above the nave floor. The onion domes over the two towers were built according to Latrobe's designs. The church was extended to the east by 33 ft m flip in 1890.Zanow Johnston 2010 22 Before initial construction of the church was completed, two other neoclassical domed churches would be built in Baltimore. The First Independent (Unitarian) Church by Maximilian Godefroy was begun in 1817 and covered the interior space with a 55 ft m mid -wide shallow coffered dome on pendentives with an oculus at the center. To improve acoustics, the interior was modified. The First Baptist Church by Robert Mills, also known as "Old Red Top Church", was a domed cylindrical rotunda with a porch block and portico. The dome had a shallow exterior profile and its oculus was covered by a low lantern, called a monitor. It was completed in 1818 but demolished in 1878.Alexander 2004 83–85 In 1828, the eastern crossing tower of Mainz Cathedral was rebuilt by Georg Moller with a wrought iron dome.Gayle Gayle 1998 24 The dome was made of flat iron sections and reinforced with ties that passed through the interior of the dome. Such dome reinforcement was one of the two established techniques, the other being the use of a combination of horizontal rings and vertical ribs.Kohlmaier Von Sartory 1991 126 The span may have been about 27 meters.Sutherland 2000 119 It was later removed in favor of the current structure.Landeshauptstadt Mainz 2013 The Altes Museum in Berlin, built in 1828 by Karl Schinkel, included a dome in its entrance hall inspired by the Roman Pantheon.Silk Gildenhard Barrow 2017 257 Large neoclassical domes include the Rotunda of Mosta in Malta, was completed in 1840 with a dome 38 meters wide, and San Carlo al Corso in Milan, completed in 1847 with a dome 32 meters wide.Cowan 1977 11 In Galicia, the Basilian monastic pilgrimage church at Hoshiv uk Гошівський монастир was built from 1834 to 1842 as a large domed rotunda with four rectangular annexes in a cruciform plan, combining the central plan popular with classicist trends in Central Europe with the cross-domed plans held to be characteristic of eastern orthodox architecture.Krasny 2003 197–198 Ruthenian Greek Catholic churches were built as tripartite churches with a dome over each of the three parts, such as the Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Przemyśl pl Cerkiew Narodzenia Najświętszej Maryi Panny w Przemyślu (1863–1864), or as cross-domed plans, such as St. Michael's Church at Kolomyia pl Cerkiew św. Michała Archanioła w Kołomyi (1855).Krasny 2003 200 Beginning around 1883, Vasyl Nahirnyi began to combine these traditional forms with the Neo-Byzantine style of Theophil Hansen, "borrowing the motifs of umbrella dome, portico, multi-mullioned windows, and arcaded friezes". He built more than 200 churches in Galicia, establishing a uniformity of Greek Catholic churches there to the extent of influencing the work of other architects. Examples include his Greek Catholic parish churches of Kuryłówka (1895) and Nowy Lubliniec (1898).Krasny 2003 200–201 Seeking a more original design, the church building committee of Zniessinie uk Знесіння (місцевість, Львів) commissioned Władysław Halicki pl Władysław Halicki to build its 1897 cross-domed parish church uk Церква Вознесіння Господнього (Знесіння).Krasny 2003 202 Saint Isaac's Cathedral, in Saint Petersburg, was built by 1842 with one of the largest domes in Europe. A cast iron dome nearly 26 meters wide, it had a technically advanced triple-shell design with iron trusses reminiscent of St. Paul's Cathedral in London.Gayle Gayle 1998 26 The design for the cathedral was begun after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 and given to a French architect, but construction was delayed. Although the dome was originally designed to be masonry, cast iron was used instead.Cowan 1983 191 Also reminiscent of St. Paul's dome and that of the Panthéon in Paris, both of which the original designer had visited, the dome of St. Nicholas' Church in Potsdam was added to the building from 1843 to 1849.Fraser 1996 129 A dome was included as a possibility in the original late Neoclassical design of 1830, but as a wooden construction. Iron was used instead by the later architects.Scheunemann Omilanowska 2012 203 Other examples of framed iron domes include those of a synagogue in Berlin, by Schwedler in 1863, and the Bode Museum by Muller-Breslau in 1907.Sutherland 2000 117 The wrought-iron dome of the Royal Albert Hall in London was built from 1867 to 1871 over an elliptical plan by the architect Henry Young Darracott Scott and structural design by Rowland Mason Ordish. It uses a set of curved trusses, like those of the earlier New Street Station in Birmingham, interrupted in the middle by a drum. The elliptical dome's span is 66.9 meters by 56.5 meters.Sutherland 2000 116 The wrought-iron dome of the church of Saint-Augustin in Paris dates from 1870 and spans 25.2 meters. A wrought-iron dome was also built over Jerusalem's Holy Sepulchre in 1870, spanning 23 meters.Sutherland 2000 115, 119 The dome over the Basilica of San Gaudenzio (begun in 1577) in Novara, Italy, was built between 1844 and 1880. Revisions by the architect during construction transformed what was initially going to be a drum, hemispherical dome, and lantern 42.22 meters tall into a structure with two superimposed drums, an ogival dome, and a thirty meter tall spire reaching 117.5 meters.Zanon Bursi Erlicher Zonta 2001 The architect, Alessandro Antonelli, who also built the Mole Antonelliana in Turin, Italy, combined Neoclassical forms with the vertical emphasis of the Gothic style.Filemio 2009 139, 141 It has an internal diameter of 14 meters and an outer diameter of 22 meters. Although the two-shell dome cross section has arches very similar to a catenary and the thrust line is contained within the dome's masonry, the light and complex construction has had many stability problems.Pavani 2020 478–479 The 1881 Dutch rebuilding of the Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, destroyed during the Aceh War, introduced the Indian style dome in place of the previous traditional Indonesian tumpanf roof.Wahid Karsono 2009 3 A large dome was built in 1881–1882 over the circular courtyard of the Devonshire Royal Hospital in England with a diameter of 156 ft m flip.Pevsner Williamson 1978 114 It used radial trussed ribs with no diagonal ties.Sutherland 2000 117 The dome of Pavia Cathedral, a building started in 1488, was completed with a large octagonal dome joined to the basilica plan of the church.Castex 2008 xli Commercial buildings Although iron production in France lagged behind Britain, the government was eager to foster the development of its domestic iron industry. In 1808, the government of Napoleon approved a plan to replace the burnt down wooden dome of the Halle au Blé granary in Paris with a dome of iron and glass, the "earliest example of metal with glass in a dome". The dome was 37 meters in diameter and used 51 cast iron ribs to converge on a wrought iron compression ring 11 meters wide containing a glass and wrought iron skylight. The outer surface of the dome was covered with copper, with additional windows cut near the dome's base to admit more light during an 1838 modification.Gayle Gayle 1998 22–23 Cast-iron domes were particularly popular in France.Hourihane 2012 304 In the United States, an 1815 commission to build the Baltimore Exchange and Custom House was awarded to Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Maximilian Godefroy for their design featuring a prominent central dome. The dome design was altered during construction to raise its height to 115 ft m flip by adding a tall drum and work was completed in 1822. Signals from an observatory on Federal Hill were received at an observation post in the dome, providing early notice of arriving merchant vessels. The building was demolished in 1901–2.Alexander 2004 75–78 The Coal Exchange in London, by James Bunstone Bunning from 1847 to 1849, included a dome 18 meters wide made from 32 iron ribs cast as single pieces. It was demolished in the early 1960s.Sutherland 2000 115 Large temporary domes were built in 1862 for London's International Exhibition Building, spanning 48.8 meters.Sutherland 2000 115, 119 The Leeds Corn Exchange, built in 1862 by Cuthbert Brodrick, features an elliptical plan dome 38.9 meters by 26.7 meters with wrought iron ribs along the long axis that radiate from the ends and others spanning the short axis that run parallel to each other, forming a grid pattern.Sutherland 2000 116 thumb|right|The Galleria Umberto I in Naples. Elaborate covered shopping arcades, such as the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan and the Galleria Umberto I in Naples, included large glazed domes at their cross intersections.Coleman 2006 32 Castex 2008 56–58 The dome of the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (1863–1867) rises to 145 ft m flip above the ground and has the same span as the dome of St. Peter's Basilica, with sixteen iron ribs over an octagonal space at the intersection of two covered streets. It is named after the first king of a united Italy.Castex 2008 56–58 The span of the metal-framed Galerie des machines at the Paris Exposition of 1889 was 111 meters.Mark 1987 142 The central market hall in Leipzig was built by 1891 with the first application of the "lattice dome" roof system developed by August Föppl from 1883. The dome covered an irregular pentagonal plan and was about 20 meters wide and 6.8 meters high.Kurrer 2012 Vladimir Shukhov was an early pioneer of what would later be called gridshell structures and in 1897 he employed them in domed exhibit pavilions at the All-Russia Industrial and Art Exhibition.Dimčić 2011 8 The dome of Sydney's Queen Victoria Building uses radial ribs of steel along with redundant diagonal bracing to span 20 meters. It was claimed to be the largest dome in the Southern Hemisphere when completed in 1898.Sutherland 2000 117 Greenhouses and conservatories Iron and glass glasshouses with curved roofs were popular for a few decades beginning shortly before 1820 to maximize orthogonality to the sun's rays, although only a few have domes. The conservatory at Syon Park was one of the earliest and included a 10.8 m ft mid -span us iron and glass dome by Charles Fowler built between 1820 and 1827. The glass panes are set in panels joined by copper or brass ribs between the 23 main cast iron ribs. Another example was the conservatory at Bretton Hall in Yorkshire, completed in 1827 but demolished in 1832 upon the death of the owner. It had a 16 m ft mid -wide us central dome of thin wrought iron ribs and narrow glass panes on a cast iron ring and iron columns. The glass acted as lateral support for the iron ribs.Sutherland 2000 113 The Antheum at Brighton would have had the largest span dome in the world in 1833 at 50 meters but the circular cast-iron dome collapsed when the scaffolding was removed.Sutherland 2000 114, 119 It had been built for horticulturalist Henry Phillips.Hitchcock 1987 177 Unique glass domes springing straight from ground level were used for hothouses and winter gardens, such as the Palm house at Kew (1844–48) and the Laeken winter garden near Brussels (1875–1876).Kohlmaier Von Sartory 1991 126–127 The Laeken dome spans the central 40 meters of the circular building, resting on a ring of columns. The Kibble Palace of 1865 was re-erected in 1873 in an enlarged form with a 16 m ft mid -wide us central dome on columns. The Palm House at Sefton Park in Liverpool has an octagonal central dome, also 16 meters wide and on columns, completed in 1896.Sutherland 2000 114–115 Libraries A four-layer timbrel dome was built at the public library of Palermo in 1822 by Alessandro Emmanuele Marvuglia, whose father, Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia, had also used the technique.Fatta Campisi Vinci 2016 121 The domed rotunda building of the University of Virginia was designed by Thomas Jefferson and completed in 1836.Silk Gildenhard Barrow 2017 257 The British Museum Library constructed a new reading room in the courtyard of its museum building between 1854 and 1857. The round room, about 42.6 meters in diameter and inspired by the Pantheon, was surmounted by a dome with a ring of windows at the base and an oculus at the top. Hidden iron framing supported a suspended ceiling made of papier-mâché.British Museum For the reading room of Paris's Bibliothèque Impériale, Henri Labrouste proposed in 1858 an iron-supported domed ceiling with a single central source of light similar to the British reading room, but changed the design due to concerns about insufficient light for readers. His completed 1869 design was a grid of nine domes, each with an oculus, supported by 16 thin cast iron columns, four of which were free-standing under the central dome.Schreurs 2021 55; 57–59 The domes themselves, supported on iron arches, were covered in white ceramic panels nine millimeters thick.Le Cœur 2012 151 Inspired by the prestigious British Museum reading room, the first iron dome in Canada was built in the early 1870s over the reading room of the Library of Parliament building in Ottawa. Unlike the British Museum room, the library, which opened in 1876, uses the Gothic style.Young 1995 20, 22, 89, 100 The dome of the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress, also inspired by the reading room dome at the British Museum, was built between 1889 and 1897 in a classical style. It is 100 ft m flip wide and rises 195 ft m flip above the floor on eight piers. The dome has a relatively low external profile to avoid overshadowing the nearby United States Capitol dome.Cole Reed 1997 25 The Boston Public Library (1887–1898) includes dome vaulting by Rafael Guastavino.Allen 2004 69 Governmental buildings List of state and territorial capitols in the United States The New Hampshire State House, built from 1816 to 1819, featured a dome crowned by a gilded eagle. When the dome was replaced after an 1864 project to double the size of the building, the eagle was transferred to the new dome.Shearer Shearer 2001 85 The design for the United States' national capitol building approved by George Washington included a dome modeled on the Pantheon, with a low exterior elevation. Subsequent design revisions resulted in a double dome, with a raised external profile on an octagonal drum, and construction did not begin until 1822. The interior dome was built of stone and brick except for the upper third, which was made of wood. The exterior dome was wooden and covered with copper sheeting.Allen 2001 146 The dome and building were completed by Charles Bulfinch in 1829.King 2000 88–89 Most of the 50 state capitol buildings or statehouses with domes in the United States cover a central rotunda, or hall of the people, due to the use of a bicameral legislature. The Pennsylvania capitol building designed by Stephen Hills in Harrisburg was the earliest to combine all the elements that would subsequently become characteristic of state capitol buildings: dome, rotunda, portico, and two legislative chambers. Like the design of the national capitol, the design was chosen through a formal competition.King 2000 89–90 Early domed state capitol buildings include those of North Carolina (as remodeled by William Nichols), Alabama (in Tuscaloosa), Mississippi, Maine (1832), Kentucky, Connecticut (in New Haven), Indiana, North Carolina (as rebuilt), Missouri (very similar to Hills' Harrisburg design), Minnesota (later rebuilt), Texas, and Vermont (1832).King 2000 90, 92, 94 thumb|right|The United States Capitol thumb|right|The Hungarian Parliament Building The current dome over the United States Capitol building, although painted white and crowning a masonry building, is made of cast iron. The dome was built between 1855 and 1866, replacing a lower wooden dome with copper roofing from 1824.aoc.gov It has a 30-meter diameter.Hourihane 2012 304 It was completed just two years after the Old St. Louis County Courthouse, which has the first cast iron dome built in the United States.Condit 1968 27 The initial design of the capitol dome was influenced by a number of European church domes, particularly St. Paul's in London, St. Peter's in Rome, the Panthéon in Paris, Les Invalides in Paris, and St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg.Allen 2001 226 The architect, Thomas U. Walter, designed a double dome interior based on that of the Panthéon in Paris.aoc.gov Dome construction for state capitol buildings and county courthouses in the United States flourished in the period between the American Civil War and World War I.Mitchell 1985 262 Most capitols built between 1864 and 1893 were landmarks for their cities and had gilded domes.Seale 1975 14 Examples from the Gilded Age include those of California, Kansas, Connecticut, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Wyoming, Michigan, Texas, and Georgia.King 2000 93 Many American state capitol building domes were built in the late 19th or early 20th century in the American Renaissance style and cover rotundas open to the public as commemorative spaces. Examples include the Indiana State House, Texas State Capitol, and the Wisconsin State Capitol.Goodsell 1993 294, 298–299 American Renaissance capitols also include those of Rhode Island and Minnesota.King 2000 93 The Reichstag Palace, built between 1883 and 1893 to house the Parliament of the new German Empire, included a dome made of iron and glass as part of its unusual mixture of Renaissance and Baroque components. Controversially, the 74 m ft mid -tall us dome stood seven meters taller than the dome of the Imperial Palace in the city, drawing criticism from Kaiser Wilhelm II.Rizzoni 2009 186 Hermann Zimmermann assisted the architect Paul Wallot in 1889, inventing the spatial framework for the dome over the plenary chamber. It is known as the "Zimmermann dome".Kurrer 2012 The Hungarian Parliament Building was built in the Gothic style, although most of the 1882 design competition entries used Neo-Renaissance, and it includes a domed central hall. The large, ribbed, egg-shaped dome topped with a spire was influenced by the dome of the Maria vom Siege church in Vienna.Moravánszky 1998 It has a sixteen sided outer shell with an iron skeleton that rises 96 meters high, and an inner shell star vault supported on sixteen stone pillars. The Dome Hall is used to display the coronation crown of Hungary and statuary of monarchs and statesmen. The dome was structurally complete by the end of 1895.Villám Szabó Gyarmati Soltész 2006 67–68, 74 Industrial buildings The "first fully triangulated framed dome" was built in Berlin in 1863 by Johann Wilhelm Schwedler in a gasometer for the Imperial Continental Gas Association and, by the start of the 20th century, similarly triangulated frame domes had become fairly common.Mainstone 2001 171Dimčić 2011 8 Schwedler built three wrought-iron domes over gasholders in Berlin between 1876 and 1882 with spans of 54.9 meters, one of which survives. Six similar Schwedler-type domes were used over gasholders in Leipzig beginning in 1885 and in Vienna using steel, in the 1890s. Rather than using traditional iron ribs, the domes consist of a thinner arrangement of short straight iron bars connected with pin joints in a lattice shell, with cross-bracing provided by light iron rods.Sutherland 2000 116–117, 119, 127 Tombs The dome of Grant's Tomb in New York City was built by Rafael Guastavino in 1890.Allen 2004 69Stern 1995 754 References 3 20em Bibliography 2 Alexander Robert L. Hayward Mary Ellen Shivers Frank R. Jr. 2004 The Architecture of Baltimore: An Illustrated History JHU Press illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=X-5DiZPRbXMC 978-0-801-87806-0 Allen Edward Anderson Stanford 2004 Guastavino, Dieste, and the Two Revolutions in Masonry Vaulting Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art 66–93 Princeton Architectural Press illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=rsra8BBzb6oC 978-1-568-98371-4 Allen William C. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CDOC-106sdoc29?null Senate Document 106-29: History of the United States Capitol: A Chronicle of Design, Construction, and Politics U.S. Government Printing Office 2001 https://www.aoc.gov/cc/capitol/dome.cfm The United States Capitol Dome November 28, 2010 Architect of the Capitol aoc.gov Bellini Federico 2017 8 Vaults and Domes: Statics as an Art Mallgrave Harry Francis Payne Alina Companion to the History of Architecture, Volume I, Renaissance and Baroque Architecture 1–33 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 10.1002/9781118887226.wbcha009 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118887226.wbcha009 978-1-118-88722-6 https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/the_building/reading_room.aspx British Museum — Reading Room October 13, 2011 British Museum British Museum Castex Jean 2008 Architecture of Italy Greenwood Press Westport, CT Reference Guides to National Architecture https://books.google.com/books?id=i4ZTbNRVWwIC 978-0-313-32086-6 Cole John Young Reed Henry Hope Small Herbert 1997 The Library of Congress: the Art and Architecture of the Thomas Jefferson Building W. 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Roca Pere Mechanics of masonry vaults: The equilibrium approach 2001 University of Minho Guimarães 47–69 972-8692-01-3 https://oa.upm.es/569/1/X-1595_PDF._Huerta_2001._Mechanics_of_masonry_vaults.pdf Huerta Santiago 2008 The analysis of masonry architecture: A historical approach: To the memory of professor Henry J. Cowan Architectural Science Review 51 4 University of Sydney 297–328 10.3763/asre.2008.5136 https://oa.upm.es/1273/1/Huerta_Art_005_2008.pdf King Julia The American Dome: Symbol of Democracy 2000 Domes. Papers Read at the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain. 83–98 Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain http://www.openbibart.fr/item/display/10068/744799 2020-09-07 2021-09-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20210904144110/http://www.openbibart.fr/item/display/10068/744799 dead Kohlmaier Georg Von Sartory Barna John C. 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A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts 3 3 https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/2802/1/Krasny_Architecture_of_the_Ruthenian_Greek_Catholic_Church_2003.pdf 194–207 Kurrer Karl-Eugen 2012 The History of the Theory of Structures: From Arch Analysis to Computational Mechanics 848 John Wiley & Sons https://books.google.com/books?id=BcbxRXYUFc0C 978-3-433-60134-1 http://www.mainz.de/WGAPublisher/online/html/default/mkuz-5v9eue.en.0 St. Martin's Cathedral — 1000 years of city history February 20, 2013 Landeshauptstadt Mainz 2013 Landeshauptstadt Mainz 2013 Le Cœur Marc Bélier Corinne Bergdoll Barry Le Cœur Marc 2012 The Bibliothèque Nationale: Between Rationalism and Illusionism Henri Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light Museum of Modern Art 2012953335 https://books.google.com/books?id=uDImUm3Dan4C 978-0-870-70839-8 Lippincott Kristen 2008 DK Eyewitness Books: Astronomy Penguin https://books.google.com/books?id=aoku6KOtT1IC&q=papier+mache+domes&pg=PA26 978-0-756-64349-2 Mainstone Rowland J. 2001 Developments in Structural Form Architectural Press 2nd https://books.google.com/books?id=l6fLIUFJhxwC 978-0-7506-5451-7 Mark Robert March–April 1987 Reinterpreting Ancient Roman Structure American Scientist 75 2 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society 27854535 142–150 1987AmSci..75..142M Miller Judith Clinch Tim 1998 Classic Style Simon and Schuster illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=df_c8hDOJ3gC 978-0-684-84997-3 Mitchell James H. The Noble Dome 1985 The Antioch Review 43 3 Antioch Review, Inc. 4611482 261–271 10.2307/4611482 Moravánszky Ákos 1998 Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European Architecture, 1867–1918 MIT Press illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=-TpdVmCpa3kC 978-0-262-13334-0 Pavani Raffaella Vol 130 Developments and Novel Approaches in Nonlinear Solid Body Mechanics Abali Bilen Emek Giorgio Ivan Advanced Structured Materials Chapter 28 Challenging Mathematical Insights into Masonry Domes Over the Centuries 2020 130 Springer 469–479 10.1007/978-3-030-50460-1_28 978-3-030-50460-1 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-50460-1_28 Perkin George 1981 Jerusalem Dome Concrete Quarterly July–Sept 130 Cement and Concrete Association 10–11 https://www.concretecentre.com/getmedia/00c9d385-e5d3-42f7-b210-6232e1eca35f/CQ_130_Autumn1981.PDF.aspx February 17, 2024 Pevsner Nikolaus Revised by Elizabeth Williamson 1978 Derbyshire Yale University Press illustrated, reprint https://books.google.com/books?id=edzSoQBSbwQC 978-0-140-71008-3 Pevsner Williamson 1978 Richardson Albert E. 2001 Monumental Classic Architecture in Great Britain and Ireland 123 Dover Publications https://books.google.com/books?id=q9-Z04D2C0oC 978-0-486-41534-5 Rizzoni Giovanni Rorato Laura Saunders Anna 2009 The Form of Parliaments & European Identity The Essence and the Margin: National Identities and Collective Memories in Contemporary European Culture 183–198 Rodopi The Netherlands https://books.google.com/books?id=bK2WQacwtLgC 978-9-042-02571-4 Scheunemann Juergen Omilanowska Malgorzata 2012 DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Berlin Penguin https://books.google.com/books?id=1rcgcb3SGWkC 978-0-756-69114-1 Wouters Ine Voorde Stephanie Bertels Inge Espion Bernard Jonge Krista Zastavni Denis Rehm Jörg The first concrete dome in Germany? A church building using modern techniques Building Knowledge, Constructing Histories: Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Construction History (6ICCH 2018), July 9–13, 2018, Brussels, Belgium 2018 CRC Press https://books.google.com/books?id=dFwPEAAAQBAJ 978-0-429-01362-1 Schreurs Eireen Schrijver Lara 2021 Transformative dialogues: on material knowing in architecture The tacit dimension: architecture knowledge and scientific research Leuven University Press https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/258/oa_edited_volume/chapter/2866998/pdf 55–67 10.1353/book.83868 10067/1822540151162165141 978-94-6166-380-1 Seale William 1975 Symbol as Architecture Design Quarterly 94/95 Walker Art Center 4090872 14–15 10.2307/4090872 Shearer Benjamin F. Shearer Barbara S. 2001 State Names, Seals, Flags, and Symbols: A Historical Guide Bloomsbury Publishing https://books.google.com/books?id=subEEAAAQBAJ 978-0-313-09236-7 Silk Michael Gildenhard Ingo Barrow Rosemary 2017 The Classical Tradition: Art, Literature, Thought John Wiley & Sons illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=qwEtDwAAQBAJ 978-1-405-15550-2 Skempton A. W. 2002 A biographical dictionary of civil engineers in Great Britain and Ireland: 1500–1830 Thomas Telford illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=jeOMfpYMOtYC 978-0-7277-2939-2 Stephenson Davis Hammond Victoria Davi Keith F. 2005 Visions of Heaven: the Dome in European Architecture Princeton Architectural Press illustrated 978-1-56898-549-7 Stern 1995 1960 Sutherland James 19th Century Iron and Glass Domes 2000 Domes. Papers Read at the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain. 111–130 Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain http://www.openbibart.fr/item/display/10068/744792 Tyack Geoffrey A Pantheon for Horses: The Prince Regent's Dome and Stables at Brighton 2015 Architectural History SAHGB Publications Limited 58 26406256 141–158 10.1017/S0066622X00002616 Villám Judit Szabó Dániel Gyarmati György Soltész István Sisa József Zsuzsa Boronkay-Roe 2006 The Hungarian National Assembly Office of the National Assembly Budapest http://www.mkogy.hu/fotitkar/angol/book_2006.pdf 978-963-87318-5-2 Wahid Julaihi Karsono Bambang Alternative to Dome as a Symbol of Masjid and I t's [sic] Influence in Indonesian Masjid Design 2009 Proceedings of 2nd International Seminar on Islamic Thought, Islam and Muslims: Issues and Challenges, 6 – 7 October 2009 Department of Theology and Philosophy, Universiti Kabangsaan Malaysia https://repository.unimal.ac.id/694/1/dome%20roof%20as%20symbol.pdf Young Carolyn Ann 1995 The Glory of Ottawa: Canada's First Parliament Buildings McGill-Queen's Press — MQUP illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=ylnGjgGExcwC 978-0-7735-1227-6 Zanon Paolo Bursi Oreste S. Erlicher Silvano Zonta D. Clemente Paolo Indirli M. 2001 Intervention Scenarios on the Basilica of San Gaudenzio Dome in Novara 7th International Seminar on Seismic Isolation, Passive Energy Dissipation and Active Control of Vibrations of Structures, Assisi, Italy, October 2–5, 2001 Assisi, Italy https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257333114 May 17, 2015 Zanow Lois Johnston Sally 2010 Monuments to Heaven: Baltimore's Historic Houses of Worship AuthorHouse illustrated https://books.google.com/books?id=bgGj9QdBKQsC 978-1-452-08537-1 Category:Domes Category:Arches and vaults Category:Church architecture Category:Mosque architecture Category:Baroque architectural features Category:Roofs