1942 Phoenix Thanksgiving Day riot

1942 riot in Phoenix, United States June 2025 June 2025 1942 Phoenix Thanksgiving Day riot 1942 11 26 11 p.m. Phoenix, Arizona, United States 33 26 50 N 112 2 52 W type:event_region:US-AZ it Conflict between infantrymen and military police officers 364th Infantry Regiment 733rd Military BattalionPhoenix Police Department 12 3 At least 150 15 On November 26, 1942, a riot occurred in Phoenix, Arizona, United States, involving United States Army infantrymen, military police, and members of the Phoenix Police Department. The incident left three people dead and approximately a dozen injured. At the time, Phoenix was experiencing an influx of soldiers as a result of World War II. One unit, the 364th Infantry Regiment, was stationed in the city in June 1942. This unit was composed entirely of African Americans, with the infantrymen experiencing racial discrimination. Such racial segregation was commonplace in Phoenix at the time. On November 26, in celebration of Thanksgiving, infantrymen were allowed to leave their military base. At about 11 p.m. that night, military police (MP) attempted to arrest an infantryman who had become involved in a physical altercation with a woman at a venue in Downtown Phoenix. During the course of the arrest, MPs fired multiple shots, injuring at least one bystander. In the aftermath, some infantrymen returned to their base, told an exaggerated account of the event, and returned with weapons, prompting a firefight between MPs, infantrymen, and, later, local law enforcement officials. Police cordoned off 28 blocks in Phoenix's African-American neighborhood and went door to door looking for men who had been involved in the firefight, shooting into houses where they believed they were hiding. The riot had largely died down by the next morning, leaving three dead and multiple wounded. In the aftermath, over 100 members of the regiment were arrested, with 15 receiving courts-martial. One was given a death sentence, though this was later commuted. Several days after the riot, and possibly due in part to the riot, the military declared Phoenix off-limits for military personnel, prompting a reform movement from local business leaders. The 364th was later relocated from Phoenix to Mississippi and, later, Alaska. Concerning historians' views on the riot, Ray Stern of the Phoenix New Times stated in 2020 that, while it differs in some respects from the "race riot[s]" that occurred during the same time period, racial tensions nonetheless were "at the root of the problem".Stern 2020 Background Phoenix during World War II thumb|300x300px|Downtown Phoenix, 1940 In 1942, the African American population of Phoenix, Arizona, was roughly 4,200, constituting about 5 percent of the city's total population.Stern 2020 Due to the city's enforcement of a strict system of racial segregation, members of this community were largely unable to participate in many aspects of society.Stern 2020 Residential segregation meant that much of the community lived in an area east of Downtown Phoenix around Eastlake Park.Stern 2020 Many experienced poor living conditions and faced an openly hostile political and social scene, as evidenced by the fact that several of the city's leaders, including at least one mayor, had been members of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s.Stern 2020 During World War II, Phoenix became a hub of military activity, with many soldiers stationed in the area.Stern 2020 The presence of these military members led to an economic boom for the city, and the economic demands of the war led to a greater intermingling of people from different ethnic and racial backgrounds.Stern 2020 Concerning the changes occurring in Phoenix at the time, Paul Hietter, a history professor at Mesa Community College, said in 2020, "For the first time, you've got a huge intermingling of races you didn't have before."Stern 2020 The 364th Infantry Regiment In June 1942,Turner 2011 287O'Connell 2001 the 364th Infantry Regiment,note While multiple sources refer to the unit during its time in Phoenix as the 364th Infantry Regiment, historian Euell A. Dixon stated in a 2020 article on BlackPast.org that the unit was known as the 367th until it was renamed the 364th in March 1943.Dixon 2020 However, in a 2020 article for the Phoenix New Times, reporter Ray Stern stated that, while the 367th had been created in 1941, the regiment underwent restructuring prior to their stationing in Phoenix, and he solely refers to the regiment as the 364th in the article.Stern 2020 In a 2001 article for In These Times, journalist Geoffrey F. X. O'Connell gives a more detailed history of the units, saying that the 367th was chartered in March 1941, dissolved in March 1942, and was partially reconstituted as the 364th prior to their stationing in Arizona.O'Connell 2001 an all-African American regiment of the United States Army,Dixon 2007 was stationed at Camp Papago Park in Phoenix.Thompson 2015 The regiment consisted primarily of inexperienced soldiers from Louisiana who were assigned to guard the prisoner-of-war camp located in Papago Park.Stern 2020 At the camp, the infantrymen experienced poor living conditions.Turner 2011 287 Truman Gibson reported that the regiment was housed in "tar-paper shacks" that turned into "sweltering furnaces" in the summer, while an investigation by the Army found that the clothing and footwear held by the regiment was inadequate.Stern 2020 Additionally, per Arizona historian Jim Turner, the infantrymen of the 364th received worse treatment from superiors than servicemembers who were white Americans. Turner states that, for instance, a military chaplain complained of racist and violent behavior from two white commanding officers.Turner 2011 287 While in Phoenix, the Army issued a new policy that replaced the military police (MP) of the 364th with MPs who were not a part of that regiment.Stern 2020 According to a 2020 article in the Phoenix New Times, the Army suspected that MPs who were members of the 364th were engaging in illegal activities.Stern 2020 As a result, the 364th MPs returned to regular duties.Stern 2020 The 733rd Military Battalion, which was stationed at the Arizona State Fairgrounds, served as MPs for the area.Dixon 2007 This unit counted African Americans among its members.note Sources vary on the composition of the 733rd. In a 2015 article in The Arizona Republic, journalist Clay Thompson described the 733rd as "a mixed-race unit",Thompson 2015 while historian Euell A. Dixon called the unit "all black" in a 2007 article for BlackPast.org.Dixon 2007 Course of the riot On November 26, the members of the 364th celebrated Thanksgiving.Luckingham 1989 143Sheridan 2012 281 That day, the commanding officer for the 364th provided a large amount of beer for the soldiers.note Concerning the quantity of beer made available to the infantrymen, multiple sources state that the men were given "all the beer they could drink".Stern 2020Turner 2011 287 Additionally, he also approved passes for members to leave the camp, with several choosing to go into the city center.Stern 2020 This was the first time that they had been approved for leave in over a month.Turner 2011 287 At about 11 p.m. that night,Stern 2020 an infantryman became engaged in an argument with a black woman and attacked her with a bottle, hitting her on her head.Thompson 2015Luckingham 1989 143 This occurred at a venue to the east of downtown Phoenix.note Sources vary on the exact location that this event took place at. A 1942 article in Time,Time 1942 a 1989 book by historian Bradford Luckingham, and a 2015 article by journalist Clay Thompson of The Arizona Republic state that the venue was a cafe, with the latter two sources further specifying that it was located at the intersection of 13th Street and Washington Street.Luckingham 1989 143Thompson 2015 However, a 2007 article by historian Euell A. Dixon on BlackPast.org states that the venue was the Alhambra Bar, which was located at the intersection of 12th Street and Washington Street.Dixon 2007 The venue being a bar is also stated in a 2020 article by journalist Ray Stern for the Phoenix New Times, though he clarifies that it was located near the intersection of 13th Street and Jefferson Street.Stern 2020 Yet another source describes the venue at the source of the riot as a "brothel".Burke 2017 189 MPs from the 733rd attempted to arrest the infantryman, but he fought back against the officers and brandished a knife.Dixon 2007Thompson 2015 During this, a crowd began to form around the building.Dixon 2007 Eventually, the MPs fired multiple gunshots.Dixon 2007Thompson 2015 One MP shot the knife-wielding infantryman, wounding him,Thompson 2015 while another shot was fired into the air in an attempt to disperse the growing crowd.Dixon 2007 One shot was fired into the ground, but ricocheted and struck another soldier from the 364th.Dixon 2007Thompson 2015 Following this, a fray broke out between the crowd and the MPs that lasted about 15 minutes, while another altercation between an infantryman and MPs occurred around the same time several blocks away.Stern 2020 Following this initial skirmish, Army officials ordered members of the 364th to return to their base, prompting about 150 servicemembers to congregate near the intersection of Washington Street and 17th Street while they waited for a bus to take them back.Stern 2020Luckingham 1989 143 While waiting, a group of MPs arrived, leading to some consternation amongst the infantrymen.Stern 2020 According to a 2020 article in the Phoenix New Times about the event, a rumor began to spread that members of the 364th were being "gunned down" by the MPs.Stern 2020 During this, several infantrymen traveled back to Papago via car and told an exaggerated account of the situation to other servicemembers there.Dixon 2007 The infantrymen grabbed weapons from the armory, including handguns, rifles, and automatic firearms, and returned to the intersection of Washington Street and 17th Street.Stern 2020Dixon 2007 Once there, a shootout commenced between the MPs and members of the 364th.Stern 2020Dixon 2007 Upon the initial gunfire, the large group of servicemembers quickly scattered as a riot broke out.Luckingham 1989 143 All available local law enforcement officials were called to assist the MPs.Luckingham 1989 143 28 blocks in Phoenix's African-American neighborhood, centered at the intersection of Jefferson Street and 16th Street, were cordoned by the law enforcement officers, who set up a machine gun at the intersection.Stern 2020 Armed with automatic firearms and armored cars, they proceeded to go door to door to houses in the area,Thompson 2015Sheridan 2012 281 as some infantrymen hid in the houses of friends in the area.Dixon 2007 According to multiple sources, police opened fire into houses where soldiers were suspected of hiding if they refused to leave the building.Thompson 2015Stern 2020Dixon 2007Luckingham 1989 143Aquallo 2019 50 Contemporary coverage from The Arizona Republic described the area as resembling a "minor battlefield".Stern 2020 In total, the firefight between the infantrymen and police lasted about three hours.Associated Press 1942Turner 2011 287Campbell 2020 281 By the early morning of the next day, MPs were reinforced by soldiers in armored scout cars.Time 1942 Aftermath The event became commonly known as the "Thanksgiving Night Riot",Burke 2017 189Sheridan 2012 281 the "Thanksgiving Day Riot", or the "Phoenix Massacre".Stern 2020 It received national news coverage, being reported on by Time and The New York Times.Time 1942Associated Press 1942 28 Additionally, The Arizona Republic gave the event headline coverage in their November 27 issue.Stern 2020 In total, roughly 100 MPs were involved in the riot.Campbell 2020 281 Sources vary on the number of infantrymen, with claims of 100 and 300.Stern 2020Campbell 2020 281 Casualties Reports vary on the exact number of people killed and injured in the riot. On November 27, both The Arizona Republic and the Associated Press reported that the riot had resulted in the death of two men and injuries to twelve others.Associated Press 1942 Later coverage of the event has given a count of three deaths as a direct result of the riot.Stern 2020Sheridan 2012 281Campbell 2020 281Dixon 2007 However, sources vary regarding the identity of these three individuals. Multiple sources state that all three of the fatalities were black soldiers,Aquallo 2019 40Yeager 2011 38Needham 2014 94Shermer 2013 123 while journalist Clay Thompson of The Arizona Republic stated in a 2020 article that the dead included two black soldiers and one civilian.Thompson 2015 A 2020 article in the Phoenix New Times gives the identity of those killed as Robert Riley (a black civilian who lived in Phoenix), George Hunter (a U.S. Army private from New York City), and an unnamed white lieutenant.Stern 2020 This breakdown of one officer, one civilian, and one enlisted man is also given in a 2003 book by historian Stanley Sandler.Sandler 2003 136 However, in a 1987 article of The Arizona Republic, journalist James Cook says that rumors place the total number of people killed as high as 19, citing an unnamed source.Stern 2020 In addition to those killed, about a dozen individuals were wounded.Campbell 2020 281 This included a 17-year-old civilian—the youngest victim of the riotStern 2020Turner 2011 287—and a member of the Phoenix Police Department whose toe was shot off.Dixon 2007 Later history of the 364th Shortly after the event, at least 150 members of the 364th were arrested,note Sources vary on the exact number of people arrested. Numbers include 150,Thompson 2015Campbell 2020 281 180,Stern 2020Sheridan 2012 281 and 200.Time 1942Dixon 2007 though most were released after a short time.Stern 2020Dixon 2007 Fifteen men received a court-martial, with fourteen receiving prison sentences and one, Joseph Sipp,Dixon 2007Stern 2020 receiving a death sentence.Thompson 2015 However, this death sentence was later commuted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt,Thompson 2015 who also commuted all of the other sentences.Turner 2011 287 The 364th was later transferred to Mississippi,Kryder 2001 146Sandler 2003 136 where they allegedly became involved in the Camp Van Dorn Slaughter.Dixon 2020 This later event has been denied by the U.S. Army and no definitive proof of the incident has been found,Dixon 2020 with Ray Stern of the Phoenix New Times labeling it a "conspiracy theory".Stern 2020 The unit was later transferred to the Aleutian Islands.Sandler 2003 136Thompson 2015 Later history of Phoenix On November 30, Colonel Ross G. Hoyt, the commanding officer of nearby Luke Field, declared the city of Phoenix off limits for soldiers stationed in the area, though he specified that the order had nothing to do with the riot and was due instead to the rising number of sexually transmitted infection cases amongst the soldiers.Luckingham 1989 144 However, according to historian Elizabeth Tandy Shermer, this rationale may have been given as a way "to calm racial tensions".Shermer 2013 123 In either case, the impact of the ban was felt by retailers and business leaders in Phoenix who had benefitted from the influx of soldiers in the city and prompted a reform movement to oust the city's political leaders.Turner 2011 287–288Shermer 2013 123–124 Business leaders pushed for Mayor Newell Stewart to dismiss several political officials, including the chief of police, city manager, city magistrate, and city clerk.Needham 2014 94 One businessman, Frank Snell, described it as resembling a "coup" or a "putsch".Needham 2014 94Sheridan 2012 281–282 Historical analysis of the riot The riot was one of a number of high-profile incidents of civil unrest that involved African American service members during World War II, as the following year there would be multiple riots on American military bases, including Camp Shenango in Pennsylvania and Camp Stewart in Georgia.Sandler 2003 136 However, concerning the difference between this riot and others, Stern said in 2020, "Contemporary and modern historians are reluctant to label the bloody incident as a race riot because it differed from the more direct style of interracial violence seen the following year in Detroit and Mobile, Alabama, which involved racist attacks on Black people in addition to rioting."Stern 2020 In contemporary coverage of the event, the Associated Press stated that the riot was primarily caused by animosity between the soldiers of the 364th and the MPs,Associated Press 1942 while Time's coverage highlighted the fact that the MP who was involved in the initial arrest was a black man.Time 1942 However, Stern does note that racial tensions in Phoenix played a major role in the severity of the riot, saying that " interracial tension was at the root of the problem".Stern 2020 In 2020, historian Matthew C. Whitaker, who had been described by Stern as "one of the few scholars in Arizona who has studied the riot", said concerning the impact of the event,Stern 2020 There was no justice for the victims, the community was traumatized, and the lasting effects include fear and deep distrust of law enforcement (who joined in the 'riot') and the criminal justice system. According to historian Milton A. Cohen, the event may have served as inspiration for a riot featured in John Oliver Killens's novel And Then We Heard the Thunder.Cohen 2021 47 Notes note References Sources 30em yes Aquallo Alan Lechusza https://books.google.com/books?id=QxjOEAAAQBAJ A State-by-State History of Race and Racism in the United States Greenwood Publishing Group 2019 978-1-4408-5601-3 Reid-Merritt Patricia I Santa Barbara, California 37–56 Arizona November 28, 1942 Two Die in Riot of Negro Soldiers https://www.nytimes.com/1942/11/28/archives/two-die-in-riot-of-negro-soldiers-bad-feeling-between-men-and-the.html live https://web.archive.org/web/20250616191038/https://www.nytimes.com/1942/11/28/archives/two-die-in-riot-of-negro-soldiers-bad-feeling-between-men-and-the.html June 16, 2025 June 16, 2025 The New York Times 28 0362-4331 1645522 Associated Press Associated Press 1942 Burke Flannery https://books.google.com/books?id=Esc1DgAAQBAJ A Land Apart: The Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century University of Arizona Press 2017 978-0-8165-3618-4 Tucson, Arizona 974565018 Campbell Tracy https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXXgDwAAQBAJ The Year of Peril: America in 1942 Yale University Press 2020 978-0-300-25283-5 New Haven, Connecticut 1153810446 Cohen Milton A. https://books.google.com/books?id=Am1vEAAAQBAJ Axis/Axes to Grind: Political Slants in American World War II Novels, 1945–1975 Clemson University Press In association with Liverpool University Press 2021 978-1-949979-75-6 Clemson, South Carolina 1245960934 Dixon Euell A. January 22, 2007 The Phoenix Thanksgiving Day Riot (1942) https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/phoenixs-thanksgiving-day-riot-1942/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20250318141135/https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/phoenixs-thanksgiving-day-riot-1942/ March 18, 2025 June 16, 2025 BlackPast.org Dixon Euell A. June 29, 2020 The Mystery of the 364th Infantry Regiment (1943-1945) https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/the-mystery-of-the-364th-infantry-regiment-1943-1945/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20250327033026/https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/the-mystery-of-the-364th-infantry-regiment-1943-1945/ March 27, 2025 June 16, 2025 BlackPast.org Kryder Daniel https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn3nphroZ3YC Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II Cambridge University Press 2001 978-0-521-00458-9 First paperback Cambridge 45350931 2000 Luckingham Bradford https://books.google.com/books?id=rxkZDAAAQBAJ Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis University of Arizona Press 1989 978-0-8165-3467-8 Tucson, Arizona 18412257 Needham Andrew https://books.google.com/books?id=VXCYDwAAQBAJ Power Lines: Phoenix and the Making of the Modern Southwest Princeton University Press 2014 978-0-691-17354-2 Princeton, New Jersey 893784033 O'Connell Geoffrey F. X. June 11, 2001 Missing in Action https://inthesetimes.com/issue/25/14/oconnell2514.html live https://web.archive.org/web/20241004083719/https://inthesetimes.com/issue/25/14/oconnell2514.html October 4, 2024 June 18, 2025 In These Times 0160-5992 60620754 Sandler Stanley https://books.google.com/books?id=_TLt0tv1r2UC The American Experience in World War II Routledge Introduction by Walter L. Hixson 2003 978-0-415-94028-3 Hixson Walter L. 10: The American People at War: Minorities and Women in the Second World War New York City 131–145 Homefront Battlefront: Military Racial Disturbances in the Zone of the Interior, 1941–1945 1110391499 Sheridan Thomas E. Thomas Sheridan (anthropologist) https://books.google.com/books?id=SSPzYTBQp7AC Arizona: A History University of Arizona Press 2012 978-0-8165-0693-4 Revised Tucson, Arizona 828490605 Shermer Elizabeth Tandy https://books.google.com/books?id=9Gt11CF1YnQC Sunbelt Capitalism: Phoenix and the Transformation of American Politics University of Pennsylvania Press 2013 978-0-8122-4470-0 Philadelphia 10.9783/9780812207606 859160752 Stern Ray November 25, 2020 Racial Tension Stoked the Deadly 1942 Phoenix Thanksgiving Day Riot https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/racial-tension-stoked-deadly-1942-phoenix-thanksgiving-day-riot-11516385 live https://web.archive.org/web/20250616190046/https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/racial-tension-stoked-deadly-1942-phoenix-thanksgiving-day-riot-11516385 June 16, 2025 June 16, 2025 Phoenix New Times Voice Media Group 0279-3962 50264098 Thompson Clay November 30, 2015 August 24, 2015 Arizona 101: Bar fight in '42 became a riot https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/2015/11/30/phoenix-riot-started-bar-fight-among-soldiers/32071399/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20221001071120/https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/2015/11/30/phoenix-riot-started-bar-fight-among-soldiers/32071399/ October 1, 2022 June 16, 2025 The Arizona Republic Gannett 2766-452X 61312426 December 7, 1942 Army & Navy — The Battle of Phoenix Time https://time.com/archive/6771592/army-navy-the-battle-of-phoenix/ July 1, 2025 Time 1942 Turner Jim https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzCnnXufPCgC Arizona: A Celebration of the Grand Canyon State Gibbs Smith 2011 978-1-4236-0742-7 Layton, Utah 707231546 Yeager Jamane https://books.google.com/books?id=yuPNEAAAQBAJ Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia Greenwood Publishing Group 2011 978-1-57356-976-7 Hornsby Alton Jr. I Santa Barbara, California 35–56 Arizona 606787576 Further reading Dailey Jane https://books.google.com/books?id=gvLTDwAAQBAJ White Fright: The Sexual Panic at the Heart of America's Racist History Basic Books 2020 978-1-5416-4654-4 New York City The "Second Front" 1143643913 Category:1942 riots Category:1942 in Arizona Category:African-American riots in the United States Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in 1942 Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in Michigan Category:November 1942 in the United States Category:Riots and civil disorder in Arizona Category:United States Army in World War II Category:United States in World War II