1990 Delta Pride strike

1990 labor strike in Mississippi October 2025 October 2025 1990 Delta Pride strike the post–civil rights era in African-American history September 12 or 13 – December 14, 1990note Start_date Sources vary on when the strike began, with most sources giving the date as either September 12Los Angeles Times 1990Schweid 1990St. George 1990 or September 13.Associated Press 1990a 23Chicago Tribune 2021aTaylor 2017 336 In a 1992 book, journalist Richard Schweid said that the walkout occurred on September 7.Schweid 1992 126(Either 09 12 1990 12 14 1990 or 09 13 1990 12 14 1990) Sunflower County, Mississippi, United Statesnote The strike affected Delta Pride's primary facility in Indianola, as well as another plant in Inverness.Taylor 2017 336 Low wages and poor working conditions Increased wages and improved working conditions * Boycott Picketing Strike action Walkout Union ratifies a new labor contract that included higher wages than initially offered by the company and changes to several company policies United Food and Commercial Workers Local 1529 Delta Pridenote Company_name The name of the company differs between sources. Given names include "Delta Pride Catfish Company",Smothers 1988 6 "Delta Pride Catfish, Inc."Monthly Labor Review 1991 40Associated Press 1990a 23 "Delta Catfish Processors, Inc.",United Press International 1987 and simply "Delta Pride Catfish".Kilborn 1990 1 Workers for Delta Pride, a catfish processing company based in Indianola, Mississippi, United States, went on strike from mid-September to mid-December 1990. The strike ended when the labor union representing the workers signed a contract that provided for wage increases and improved working conditions. By the 1980s, aquaculture of catfish in Mississippi had become a multi-million-dollar industry, centered primarily in the Mississippi Delta region of the state. Delta Pride, a cooperative operated by over a hundred catfish farmers in the region, was the largest processor of catfish. It operated its main facility in Indianola and employed over 1,000 people. While many of the company's supervisors were white Americans, the overwhelming majority of its workforce were African Americans, particularly black women. In the mid-1980s, these employees unionized with the United Food and Commercial Workers. The primary motives behind unionizing were the low wages—typically less than a dollar above than the federal minimum wage—and the poor working conditions, with some employees comparing the work environment to that of the plantation complexes in the Southern United States. Of notable issue was the company's restroom policy, which limited workers to six restroom visits per week, with time limits of five minutes per visit. In mid-1990, the labor contract between the company and the union expired, and negotiations on a replacement contract were fruitless, with the union requesting higher wages and changes to company policies, including the restroom policy. On either September 12 or 13, 1990,note Start_date several hundred employees went on strike with a walkout. Picketing commenced and the union launched a nationwide boycott of Delta Pride products. Strike leaders attempted to frame the strike as a dispute over civil rights, and the strikers received considerable support from civil rights organizations, such as the NAACP, Operation PUSH, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Additionally, many notable activists visited Indianola during the strike, including Bill Clay, Dick Gregory, and Jesse Jackson. While the company was able to hire a large number of replacement workers and stayed in operation during the strike, it experienced a number of setbacks that eventually led it to resume negotiations with the union. These included a souring public reputation and an incident where two company shareholders had attempted to bribe a member of the union's bargaining committee. By mid-December, negotiations had resumed, and on December 14, a new contract was ratified, ending the strike. The strike is considered the largest by African Americans in the state's history, and at least one historian—Marcia Walker-McWilliams—has called it the largest in Mississippi history.Walker-McWilliams 2016 206 Per the terms of the contract, workers received wages in excess of those initially offered by the company. In addition, the previously striking employees were rehired. Concerning other agreements, the contract saw an increase in holidays, an end to the company's restrictions on restroom access, and the creation of a health and safety committee, among other things. Background Catfish industry in Mississippi thumb|303x303px|Workers harvesting catfish at a fish farm in Mississippi In the 1980s, the U.S. state of Mississippi was a center for the aquaculture of catfish.Smothers 1988 6May 1990a In a 1988 article, The New York Times reported that "Mississippi is the source of 80 to 85 percent of the catfish grown and processed annually".Smothers 1988 6note The New York Times did not specify as to whether this figure applied to the catfish industry of the United States or to the worldwide catfish industry.Smothers 1988 6 This growth coincided with a growing culinary popularity of catfish in the United States.Smothers 1988 6 Between 1978 and 1987, the amount of farm-raised catfish meat processed in the United States rose from 22 million pounds (22 lb kg 0 output number only million kilograms) to 280 million lb (280 lb kg output number only million kg), with a statistician for the United States Department of Agriculture saying that the amount was roughly doubling every three years.Smothers 1988 6 That year, sales of catfish exceeded $300 million (equivalent to $US 300 1987 0 million in US).United Press International 1987 By 1990, 37 plants had been built in the state to process the fish into meat,Kilborn 1990 1 and approximately 6,000 Mississippians were employed in the industry.Cobb 1992 330 A majority of both these plants and the workers were located in the state's Mississippi Delta,Kilborn 1990 1Cobb 1992 330 a region in the western part of the state located between the Mississippi River to the west and the Yazoo River to the east.United Press International 1987 By 1990, this region had become the most productive in the United States for catfish production and processing.Smothers 1988 6 Geologically, the Delta benefitted from the clay content of its soil and its shallow aquifers, which allowed for the creation of ponds needed for the raising of catfish.Hanson 2017 184 While catfish farming operations in the Delta had begun in the 1960s, the industry experienced a boom in the 1980s.Kilborn 1990 1 This was due in part to increased mechanization in the cotton industry—historically one of the largest industries in the Delta—which caused an uptick in unemployment and created a large labor pool to work in the catfish industry.Kilborn 1990 1 Additionally, many farmers who traditionally grew either cotton or soybeans began raising catfish.Kilborn 1990 1 Workers were also attracted to the industry due to the wages, which were considered higher on average than other industries in the region.Smothers 1988 6 In 1988, the average hourly wage for someone working in catfish processing was about $4 ($US 4 1988 2 in US).Smothers 1988 6 The workforce for the catfish industry, as well as the overall population of the Delta region during this time,Smothers 1988 6 was largely African American.Cobb 1992 330 Delta Pride thumb|209x209px|Indianola in Sunflower County, Mississippi In the late 1980s, the largest producer of processed catfish meat was Delta Pride.Smothers 1988 6Associated Press 1990a 23United Press International 1990bMoye 2004 199note Company_name The company, which was founded by Samuel Hinote in 1981,United Press International 1987 was a cooperative owned by over a hundred catfish farmers in the region.Smothers 1988 6note Sources vary on the number of farmers who were involved in the Delta Pride cooperative. A 1987 report by United Press International gave a figure of 167.United Press International 1987 However, in a 1988 article for The New York Times, Ronald Smothers stated that the cooperative was owned by 168 farmers.Smothers 1988 6 Later, in 1990, Peter T. Kilborn wrote in an article for The New York Times that 155 farmers were involved.Kilborn 1990 1 That same year, Donna St. George reported in The Seattle Times that the cooperative was owned by 180 farmers,St. George 1990 a number echoed by Peter Schweid of the Los Angeles Times.Schweid 1990 A 2001 book that discusses the strike states that the cooperative was owned by 178 farmers.Green Rycenga 2001 395 Under the arrangement, the fish farmers would sell their fish to Delta Pride and share the profits received by the cooperative.Kilborn 1990 1 Concerning the company's size and prominence, The New York Times called it the "industry wage leader" and the "General Motors" of catfish processing.Kilborn 1990 1 In 1987, the company operated three plants, with its main facility in Indianola,United Press International 1987 a city in the Delta that had a population of around 8,000.Kilborn 1990 1 In 1987, the company, which employed over 1,000 people,note Sources vary on the size of the Delta Pride workforce in 1987. The United Press International stated that the company employed "nearly 1,500 employees",United Press International 1987 while Ronald Smothers of The New York Times reported that the company employed "nearly 2,000 people".Smothers 1988 6 processed approximately 100 million lb (100 lb kg output number only million kg) of fish.Smothers 1988 6 By 1990, catfish production had become the largest industry in the city,Kilborn 1990 1 and Delta Pride was the single largest employer in Sunflower County.Schweid 1990 The number of manufacturing jobs in the county had roughly doubled between 1980 and 1987, largely because of the catfish industry,Smothers 1988 6 and the county also had an unemployment rate of 11.9 percent, which was lower than the surrounding area.Smothers 1988 6 Unionization efforts In late 1985, the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW)—a 1.6-million-member labor union that was the largest affiliate of the AFL-CIO—mailed 100,000 cards to residents of the Delta, requesting that the recipients fill out and mail the cards to UFCW Local 1529 in Memphis, Tennessee, if they were interested in seeking union representation.United Press International 1987 According to a director for the UFCW, the local union received a large number of responses from workers in the region's catfish industry, prompting the union to initiate a unionization drive.United Press International 1987 Union organizer Bobby Moses oversaw the drive, which was headquartered in Greenwood, Mississippi, and specifically targeted Delta Pride.United Press International 1987 As part of their efforts, the union reached out to local black churches and black businesses for support, and the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP also supported the union drive.United Press International 1987 The union also worked with Black Workers for Justice, which supported the effort.Tait 2016 146 In response, the company hired the New Orleans-based law firm of Kullman, Inman, Bee & Downing, to assist in advocating against unionization.United Press International 1987 The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), based on complaints from the union, accused the company of firing pro-union workers, making threats, and conducting surveillance, though the company denied these charges.United Press International 1987 Issues expressed by Delta Pride employees Working conditions According to United Press International, which interviewed several workers in 1987, the main issue expressed by Delta Pride employees was the way in which they were treated by their supervisors.United Press International 1987 Sarah White, who worked as a skinner for Delta Pride in the 1980s, said that the company's management would fire workers "for any reason, just because they didn't like your attitude, or if you talked back at them".United Press International 1987 According to White, several workers were fired for being pregnant or sick.United Press International 1987 Workers could also be fired for being too slow, with supervisors often timing employees at their tasks with a stopwatch.Kilborn 1990 1 Some workers at the plant complained of having to stand in fish entrails for several hours straight.Cobb 1992 330 Additionally, multiple employees stated that they had experienced eye, throat, and skin irritation due to the high level of ammonia in the plant's water supply.Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 Repetitive strain injuries were also reported, with at least one employee having developed carpal tunnel syndrome.Kilborn 1990 1Schweid 1990 Due to the high levels of poverty and unemployment in the Delta, replacement workers for fired employees were often readily available.Kilborn 1990 1 One of the largest points of contention between the workers and company management concerned access to restrooms.St. George 1990 Restroom visits were rationed, with employees allowed only six five-minute restroom breaks per week, in addition to their thirty-minute lunch break and two other fifteen-minute breaks.Kilborn 1990 1St. George 1990 Per some employees, women workers needed to get permission before going to the restrooms and were often followed by their supervisors.Cobb 1992 330 Their visits were timed, with supervisors banging on the restroom door after five minutes.United Press International 1987 Additionally, the stalls lacked individual doors.United Press International 1987Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 The penalty for three violations of this restroom policy was often the loss of a days' work, and three additional violations often resulted in firing.Kilborn 1990 1 According to historians Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur, the restroom policy was the "tipping point" towards eventual labor action.Boswell McArthur 2006 2 In the Mississippi Delta, commercial catfish farming has replaced cotton culture, but although the "crop" is different, it is still harvested and processed by black laborers for powerful white landowners. The region's economic transformation has changed, without improving, African American women's work lives: assembly-line jobs skinning and gutting catfish under the scrutiny of white supervisors with stopwatches have replaced field labor under white overseers. Historians Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur, 2006Boswell McArthur 2006 1–2 400px Numerous employees and commentators have compared the work environment at Delta Pride to those of the plantation complexes in the Southern United States.Associated Press 1990a 23 "" Kilborn 1990 1 May 1990a St. George 1990 United Press International 1990b Cobb 1992 330 United States Commission on Civil Rights 2001 5 Moye 2004 200 Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 Aaron Henry, the president of the Mississippi branch of the NAACP, said in 1990 that the employees' anger towards Delta Pride was driven by "a combination of race and economics, coupled with the philosophy of the plantation", while Dick Stevens, the president of another catfish company based in Isola, Mississippi, said, "I don't think there's any doubt about the plantation mentality around here".Kilborn 1990 1 This comparison was also highlighted by the fact that, while most of the employees were black women,Tait 2016 146 most of the management was made up of white people.Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 Additionally, some workers said that there were rumors that white male supervisors gave sexual favors of better wages or positions to female workers.Cobb 1992 330 Wages In a 1992 book, historian James C. Cobb stated that the primary reason workers expressed for unionizing was "the desire for better wages and working conditions".Cobb 1992 330 Concerning this former part, Peter T. Kilborn of The New York Times stated that the average worker at Delta Pride in 1990 was earning an hourly pay of $4.05 ($US 4.05 1990 2 c in US), compared to the federal minimum wage of $3.80 ($US 3.80 1990 2 c in US).Kilborn 1990 1 At this rate, the average full-time worker made an average yearly income of $8,424 ($US 8424 1990 0 c in US), which was below the poverty threshold of $12,675 ($US 12675 1990 0 c in US) established by the federal government for a single parent of three children.Kilborn 1990 1 However, the union stated that this figure was inaccurate and that the actual average hourly pay for a Delta Pride worker was only $3.90 ($US 3.90 1990 2 c in US).St. George 1990 At the time, most of the employees of Delta Pride were single parents.Kilborn 1990 1 Industry-wide, the average pay was slightly below $4 ($US 4 1990 2 in US) per hour.Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 At Delta Pride, the company assisted workers in applying for welfare programs.Kilborn 1990 1Cobb 1992 330 White also stated that there had been some instances where workers on the first shift would arrive at 8 a.m. but not be allowed to clock in until catfish arrived at the plant, which sometimes occurred several hours later.United Press International 1987 Per White, there had been several times when workers were physically present at the plant for eight hours but were only paid for three hours of work.United Press International 1987 Unionization vote In October 1986, workers at Delta Pride unionized with the UFCW,United Press International 1987Taylor 2017 335–336 with a vote of 489 in favor and 349 against.Moye 2004 202 A day prior to the vote, in an attempt to sway the workers against unionization, Delta Pride gave workers time off to attend a company-hosted barbecue where a pile of $182,000 ($US 182000 1986 -3 c in US)—representing the amount the company said workers would lose annually in union dues—was on display.Tait 2016 146 Despite this, the union drive, which was largely led by black women including White, Margaret Hollins, Rose Turner, and Mary Young,Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 succeeded, with the employees of Delta Pride becoming unionized under UFCW Local 1529.Monthly Labor Review 1991 40Kilborn 1990 1 Speaking of the successful drive, Cleve McDowell, a field director for the NAACP in Mississippi, told The Washington Post,Tait 2016 146 This is the beginning of a second era of civil rights for us here. We are going past public accommodations and the right to vote and looking at economic power. On June 29, 1987, the first labor contract between the union and the company went into effect.United Press International 1987 The contract would run for three years, expiring in mid-1990.Taylor 2017 336 At the time, Hinote was still involved in the company, serving as its president.United Press International 1987 Issues facing the industry in the late 1980s / early 1990s While there had been 37 catfish processing plants in operation in Mississippi during the 1980s, three of these had closed by 1990.Kilborn 1990 1 In the 1980s, the industry had instituted a form of price fixing in which processing plants agreed to pay farmers $0.80 ($US 0.8 1990 2 c in US) per pound of fish, which cost farmers approximately $0.70 ($US 0.7 1990 2 c in US) to raise.Kilborn 1990 1 However, this price fixing ultimately hurt many farmers due to their stakes in the processing cooperatives.Kilborn 1990 1 Speaking in 1990, Larry W. Joiner (then-president and chief executive officer of Delta Pride) said, "From a processing standpoint, the industry is sick. Processors are selling for less than their cost of production."Kilborn 1990 1 From 1988 to 1990, Delta Pride, which employed about 1,000 individuals,note Sources vary on the exact number of individuals employed by the company during this time. In an October 1990 article, the Los Angeles Times stated that the company employed about 1,085 workers at two plants in Indianola.Los Angeles Times 1990 However, in a March 1990 article for the newspaper, journalist Lee May said that the Indianola plant employed 921 employees,May 1990a while journalist Peter T. Kilborn said in a December 1990 article for The New York Times that the company employed about 1,200 individuals in September of that year.Kilborn 1990 1 failed to generate a profit.Kilborn 1990 1 In 1989, this was in spite of roughly $144 million ($US 144 1989 0 million in US) in sales.St. George 1990 As early as 1988, Delta Pride was trying to mechanize the filleting process at their Indianola plant, though this was limited due to the technology available at the time.Smothers 1988 6note In 1988, The New York Times reported that Delta Pride had installed several filleting machines that could process 40 fish per minute, compared to five fish per minute processed by humans. However, the machines could not process fish larger than 28 oz kg and required additional inspections and processing from humans.Smothers 1988 6 Contract negotiations in 1990 In July 1990, the labor contract between the company and union expired,Schweid 1990 with the two sides negotiating on the terms of a new labor contract.Walker-McWilliams 2018 95 According to historian Kieran W. Taylor, the company aimed to stall these negotiations, with the goal of breaking the local union.Taylor 2017 336 According to the Los Angeles Times, the company and union disagreed over the terms of the new contract, with the company offering hourly pay raises of between $0.35 and $0.90 ($US 0.35 1990 2 c and $US 0.9 1990 2 c in US).Los Angeles Times 1990 The union, however, requested higher wage increases, as well as improvements to the company's pension plan and the creation of a committee for workers' health and safety.Los Angeles Times 1990 Per the union, because of an increase in the federal hourly minimum wage to $4.25 ($US 4.25 1991 2 in US) that was to take effect on April 1, 1991, the company's offer would only equate to an hourly increase of about 6.2¢ ($US 0.062 1990 2 in US) per hour over what they would legally be required to pay.St. George 1990 Per the Associated Press, the workers were equally concerned about wages as they were about working conditions, with the news agency reporting that workers had complained of high incidents of injuries, being timed by supervisors, and the company's poor restroom policy.Associated Press 1990a 23 Concerning the injuries, in December 1989, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States Department of Labor had fined Delta Pride $32,800 ($US 32800 1989 -2 c in US) for workplace health and safety violations that the department said had resulted in workplace injuries.Schweid 1990 While the company contested the fine, it also hired consultants to help institute changes intended to prevent further injuries.Kilborn 1990 1St. George 1990 Concerning the restrooms, the company's proposal included a maximum of six restroom breaks per week, which the union rejected, instead seeking an end to the restrictions on restroom breaks.Ivins Dubose 2004 58 According to White, in response, the company proposed adding five minutes to the employees' lunch break and requiring restroom visits to be made during that time.Ivins Dubose 2004 58 After several weeks of negotiations,Taylor 2017 336 the company made its final offer to the union in late August 1990.Schweid 1990 According to Richard Schweid of the Los Angeles Times, this offer included an hourly wage increase of 6.5¢ ($US 0.065 1990 2 in US) per year for each of the three years that the contract would be in place.Schweid 1990 However, the union rejected this proposal in early September,note Sources vary on the exact date that the union rejected the company's proposal, with September 7Schweid 1990 and September 10Taylor 2017 336 both given. with members voting 410 against and 5 in favor of accepting the deal.Chicago Tribune 2021aSt. George 1990Taylor 2017 336 Following the rejection, Delta Pride refused to engage in further negotiations with the union.Schweid 1990 Course of the strike Walkout On either September 12 or 13,note Start_date Delta Pride workers initiated a labor strike, which began with a walkout involving about 900 employees.note Sources vary on the number of strikers involved in the initial walkout. While the most commonly reported number is 900,Schweid 1990Associated Press 1990a 23Chicago Tribune 2021cMay 1990bSchweid 1992 126United States Commission on Civil Rights 2001 5Taylor 2017 336 other reported values include 500,Kilborn 1990 1 1,000,Los Angeles Times 1990Broadway 1995 24Taylor 2017 335 and 1,200.Schwartzman 2013 63 In a 1990 article, United Press International stated that the union contract would affect about 1,200 employees.United Press International 1990b The strike affected Delta Pride's facilities in Indianola and Inverness,Taylor 2017 336 while two other plants operated by the company were unaffected.Associated Press 1990a 23 Strikers received a weekly strike pay of $60 ($US 60 1990 0 in US), in addition to a 50 lb kg on on ration of beans, peas, and rice provided by the union.Ivins Dubose 2004 59 In response, the company hired strikebreakers to replace the workers,Los Angeles Times 1990 with many hired from Cleveland and Greenville.Ivins Dubose 2004 59 Commenting on this, a spokesperson for the union said that the replacement workers were willing to cross the strikers' picket line because they lived in areas that had unemployment rates of about 20 percent.Schweid 1990 By October 8, a spokesperson for Delta Pride said that the company's workforce was roughly 80 percent of what it had been pre-strike, and that over 200 union members had left the union and returned to work.Los Angeles Times 1990 Boycott and support from civil rights organizations horizontal 400 Bill Clay, official black-and-white portrait (1980s).webp Jesse Jackson, half-length portrait of Jackson seated at a table, July 1, 1983 edit.jpg During the strike, several civil rights activists, including Bill Clay (left) and Jesse Jackson, visited Indianola to express their support for the strikers.Schwartzman 2013 74Ivins Dubose 2004 59 Strike leaders, including White,O'Reilly 2019 85 attempted to garner support for their side by framing the labor dispute as a fight over civil rights.Taylor 2017 336Moye 2004 202 The AFL-CIO led a nationwide boycott of Delta Pride products, which received support from civil rights organizations,Holley Jennings 1994 406 such as the NAACP, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC),Penn 1991 28–29Moye 2004 202 and Operation PUSH.Chicago Tribune 2021b According to Schweid, the boycott caused concern among other catfish processors in the region, as they feared that consumers might boycott catfish in general instead of Delta Pride-processed catfish specifically.Schweid 1990 The boycott was especially concerning for the industry because African Americans, especially Black Southerners,Moye 2004 202 constituted a large percentage of catfish consumers in the United States.Schweid 1990 To support the boycott, White and Rose Turner (another striker) traveled across the United States and delivered an address before a hearing of the Congressional Black Caucus in Washington, D.C.Taylor 2017 336 The caucus attempted to bring greater attention to the strike, with Bill Clay—a member of the caucus who represented Missouri in the House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic Party—traveling to Indianola to hear testimony from strikers.Schwartzman 2013 74 Other famous individuals who visited Indianola during the strike included civil rights activists Dick Gregory, Jesse Jackson,Ivins Dubose 2004 59 Martin Luther King III, Rosa Parks,Chicago Tribune 2021c and SCLC president Joseph Lowery.Schweid 1990 By November, multiple grocery store chains, including A&P and AppleTree Markets,St. George 1990 had committed to stop selling Delta Pride products.May 1990b However, Winn-Dixie—the single-largest buyer of Delta Pride products—had not, prompting a targeted campaign from the SCLC that included protests and rallies outside of Winn-Dixie locations.Schweid 1990May 1990b Despite this, Winn-Dixie stated that they would not cease selling Delta Pride catfish, citing a company policy regarding involvement in labor disputes experienced by their suppliers.Schweid 1990May 1990b Later developments In early November, a federal grand jury indicted two shareholders in Delta Pride for attempting to bribe a member of the union's bargaining committee.Schweid 1990Taylor 2017 336 Specifically, they had offered the individual $5,000 ($US 5000 1990 0 c in US) in exchange for speaking out in favor of ending the strike.Schweid 1990 This was one of a series of events that damaged the company's reputation during the strike.Taylor 2017 336 Around the same time, several Delta Pride officials were cited by the NLRB for threatening picketing employees and for encouraging their employees to leave the union.Taylor 2017 336 The company also suffered from an episode of Today on NBC that discussed the strike.Taylor 2017 336 The episode featured an interview with Delta Pride's chairman, Turner Arant, who gave a tour of his large catfish farm and home.Taylor 2017 336 This contrasted with an interview of a striker who spoke of how difficult it was to support her family of eight children with her current wages.Taylor 2017 336 The interview prompted Arant to resign.Taylor 2017 336 By December, there had been several instances of violence on the picket line, including several instances of gunfire and a police officer beating a striker.St. George 1990 Roughly 20 picketers were arrested during the strike.St. George 1990 On December 10, federal mediators announced that they were planning to hold negotiations between the company and union the following day.Kilborn 1990 1 These negotiations ended on December 12,United Press International 1990b with the two sides reaching a tentative agreement on the terms of a new labor contract.Taylor 2017 336 On December 14,note Most sources state that the vote to approve the tentative agreement occurred on December 14.Associated Press 1990a 23Associated Press 1990b 38United Press International 1990aUnited Press International 1990b However, in the 2017 book The Mississippi Encyclopedia, historian Kieran W. Taylor stated that the vote occurred on December 13.Taylor 2017 336 the union workers voted overwhelmingly to approve the contract, bringing the strike to an end.note Sources vary on the results of the vote. A contemporary report from United Press International states that union workers voted 399 in favor and 1 against,United Press International 1990b while historian Kieran W. Taylor said in a 2017 book that the result was 479 in favor and 1 against.Taylor 2017 336 In total, the strike lasted about 13 weeks.Monthly Labor Review 1991 40 Aftermath Terms of the new labor contract The new labor contract agreed upon by the union and company would cover about 1,200 workers and run for 34 months.United Press International 1990b Per the terms of the contract, previously striking employees would be rehired.Chicago Tribune 2021dTaylor 2017 336 Concerning wages, employees who had been with the company for at least one year would receive an hourly pay increase of 60¢ ($US 0.6 1990 2 c in US).Taylor 2017 336 Over the term of the contract, the employees would receive raises of between 65¢ and 85¢ ($US 0.65 1990 2 c and $US 0.85 1990 2 c in US).Monthly Labor Review 1991 40 Additional wage increases were granted to workers in specific areas of the plant who had met specific seniority levels, and double pay was instituted for employees on their seventh consecutive day of work.Monthly Labor Review 1991 41 On average, the hourly wage increase after the strike was approximately 85¢.Holley Jennings 1994 406 Concerning changes to the workplace, the company agreed to create a health and safety committee which would include workers in its ranks.Taylor 2017 336 Additionally, the company ended its restrictions on restroom access.Holley Jennings 1994 406 Among other policy changes, the company agreed to give workers an additional 10-minute break after 10 hours of work, guaranteed union representatives unlimited access to break areas and access to other areas in the plant in order to investigate grievances, and agreed to conduct drug testing only after an accident had occurred.Holley Jennings 1994 406 Workers also received increased vacation time,Walker-McWilliams 2018 96 as well as Memorial DayMonthly Labor Review 1991 41 and Martin Luther King Jr. Day as holidays.Moye 2004 203 Historical significance and later history Multiple sources have called the strike the largest involving African American workers in the history of Mississippi,St. George 1990 "The strike, the largest ever by African Americans in Mississippi" Broadway 1995 37 "the largest strike by African Americans in Mississippi occurred among Delta Pride workers in 1990" Schwartzman 2013 63 O'Reilly 2019 85 "the largest strike of black workers (most of them women) in Mississippi history" while historian Marcia Walker-McWilliams stated in a 2016 book that it was the largest strike in Mississippi history.Walker-McWilliams 2016 206 The strike received national attention,Schweid 1990Schweid 1992 127 with journalist Vanessa Tait saying it was "one of the most watched southern union battles in decades".Tait 2016 146 The end of the strike came amidst a period of declining sales for catfish in the United States,Cobb 1992 331 and the industry experienced some austerity that aimed to address the issue of oversaturation that had become prevalent in the late 1980s.United States Commission on Civil Rights 2001 5 Additionally, the industry began to face increased competition from foreign producers, resulting in layoffs at Delta Pride.Taylor 2017 336 In June 2003, White gave a firsthand account of the strike in a speech at the Sixth Southern Conference on Women's History in Athens, Georgia, which was sponsored by the Southern Association for Women Historians.Boswell McArthur 2006 1 In 2007, it was reported that Alicia Keys had become involved in the possible production of a movie based on the strike.Josey 2007 31 See also List of US strikes by size Notes note References Sources 30em yes December 14, 1990a Catfish Plant Strikers Reach Tentative Pact https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/14/us/catfish-plant-strikers-reach-tentative-pact.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20250104115120/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/14/us/catfish-plant-strikers-reach-tentative-pact.html January 4, 2025 October 5, 2025 The New York Times 23 0362-4331 1645522 Associated Press Associated Press 1990a December 16, 1990b Pact Approved at Delta Pride https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/16/us/pact-approved-at-delta-pride.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20250104015027/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/16/us/pact-approved-at-delta-pride.html January 4, 2025 October 5, 2025 The New York Times 38 0362-4331 1645522 Associated Press Associated Press 1990b Boswell Angela https://books.google.com/books?id=3n3Q8k-sNysC Women Shaping the South: Creating and Confronting Change McArthur Judith N. University of Missouri Press 2006 978-0-8262-6486-2 Boswell Angela Columbia, Missouri 1–6 Editors' Introduction 70688234 McArthur Judith N. Broadway Michael J. https://books.google.com/books?id=6UYfAQAAIAAJ Any Way You Cut it: Meat Processing and Small-Town America University Press of Kansas 1995 978-0-7006-0721-1 Stull Donald D. Lawrence, Kansas 17–40 From City to Countryside: Recent Changes in the Structure and Location of the Meat- and Fish-Processing Industries 32589807 Broadway Michael J. Griffith David August 10, 2021a October 1, 1990 Mississippi Strike Takes on Civil Rights Character https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/10/01/mississippi-strike-takes-on-civil-rights-character/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005001446/https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/10/01/mississippi-strike-takes-on-civil-rights-character/ October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 Chicago Tribune 1085-6706 7960243 Chicago Tribune 2021a August 10, 2021b October 20, 1990 PUSH boycotts catfish firm: Operation PUSH announced... https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/10/20/push-boycotts-catfish-firm-operation-push-announced/ subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005002024/https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/10/20/push-boycotts-catfish-firm-operation-push-announced/ October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 Chicago Tribune 1085-6706 7960243 Chicago Tribune 2021b August 10, 2021c December 11, 1990 Catfish Processors, Firm Schedule Negotiations https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/12/11/catfish-processors-firm-schedule-negotiations/ subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005001742/https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/12/11/catfish-processors-firm-schedule-negotiations/ October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 Chicago Tribune 1085-6706 7960243 Chicago Tribune 2021c August 10, 2021d December 14, 1990 Racially Tinged Delta Pride Strike Settled after 3 Months https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/12/14/racially-tinged-delta-pride-strike-settled-after-3-months/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005000914/https://www.chicagotribune.com/1990/12/14/racially-tinged-delta-pride-strike-settled-after-3-months/ October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 Chicago Tribune 1085-6706 7960243 Chicago Tribune 2021d Cobb James C. https://books.google.com/books?id=WF3hl9UAODAC The Most Southern Place on Earth: The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity Oxford University Press 1992 978-0-19-976243-9 Oxford 25009201 Green Laurie Beth https://books.google.com/books?id=hwKUAgAAQBAJ Frontline Feminisms: Women, War, and Resistance Rycenga Jennifer Routledge 2001 978-1-135-95454-3 Waller Marguerite R. 1st Paperback New York City 395–416 "A Struggle of the Mind": Black Working-Class Women's Organizing in Memphis and the Mississippi Delta, 1960s to 1990s 57190265 2000 Rycenga Jennifer Hanson Terry https://books.google.com/books?id=HWolDwAAQBAJ The Mississippi Encyclopedia University Press of Mississippi Sponsored by the Center for the Study of Southern Culture at the University of Mississippi 2017 978-1-4968-1159-2 Ownby Ted Jackson, Mississippi 184–185 Catfish Farming 959373243 Wilson Charles Reagan Abadie Ann J. Ann J. Abadie Lindsey Odie Thomas James G. Jr. Holley William H. Jr. http://archive.org/details/laborrelationspr00holl_1 The Labor Relations Process Jennings Kenneth M. Dryden Press 1994 978-0-03-097576-9 5th Fort Worth, Texas 392–420 Institutional Issues: Managerial Rights, Union Security, and the Rights of Minority and Female Employees 31435765 registration Ivins Molly Molly Ivins https://books.google.com/books?id=jk56O0wR8DsC Bushwhacked: Life in George W. Bush's America Dubose Lou Louis Dubose Vintage Books 2004 978-1-4000-9535-3 1st Vintage Books New York City 1159422197 2003 Josey Imani July 30, 2007 Alicia Keys to Produce New Film https://books.google.com/books?id=DjsDAAAAMBAJ Jet Chicago Johnson Publishing Company 112 4 31 0021-5996 1781708 Kilborn Peter T. December 10, 1990 Charges of Exploitation Roil a Catfish Plant https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/10/us/charges-of-exploitation-roil-a-catfish-plant.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20231204035307/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/10/us/charges-of-exploitation-roil-a-catfish-plant.html December 4, 2023 October 5, 2025 The New York Times 1 0362-4331 1645522 October 8, 1990 P.M. Briefting: Catfish on Move Despite Strike https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-10-08-fi-1748-story.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251004235100/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-10-08-fi-1748-story.html October 4, 2025 October 4, 2025 Los Angeles Times 0458-3035 3638237 Los Angeles Times 1990 May Lee March 25, 1990a Southern Catfish Workers Charge They're Being Crippled by Their Jobs https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-03-25-mn-211-story.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251004235427/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-03-25-mn-211-story.html October 4, 2025 October 4, 2025 Los Angeles Times 0458-3035 3638237 May Lee November 10, 1990b Striking Catfish Processors Boycott Big Grocery Chain https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-10-mn-3761-story.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251004234812/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-10-mn-3761-story.html October 4, 2025 October 4, 2025 Los Angeles Times 0458-3035 3638237 March 1991 Developments in industrial relations https://books.google.com/books?id=FLMHCncidoIC Monthly Labor Review Washington, D.C. Bureau of Labor Statistics 114 3 39–41 0098-1818 00981818 958653658 Monthly Labor Review 1991 Moye J. Todd https://books.google.com/books?id=WrbqCQAAQBAJ Let the People Decide: Black Freedom and White Resistance Movements in Sunflower County, Mississippi, 1945–1986 University of North Carolina Press 2004 978-0-8078-7670-1 Chapel Hill, North Carolina 65181294 O'Reilly Nancy D. https://books.google.com/books?id=-TdXDwAAQBAJ In This Together: How Successful Women Support Each Other in Work and Life Adams Media 2019 978-1-5072-0885-4 First Adams Media hardcover Avon, Massachusetts 69–92 Define Each Other as Leaders 1055266600 Penn William H. Sr. January 1991 NAACP Battlefront https://books.google.com/books?id=_lgEAAAAMBAJ The Crisis Baltimore NAACP 98 1 28–29, 38 1559-1573 77079334 Schwartzman Kathleen C. https://books.google.com/books?id=He39dKBQFdwC The Chicken Trail: Following Workers, Migrants, and Corporations across the Americas ILR Press 2013 978-0-8014-6804-9 Ithaca, New York 829387577 Schweid Richard November 18, 1990 Delta Strike: Civil Rights or Just Plain Economics? https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-18-op-6651-story.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251004234316/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-18-op-6651-story.html October 4, 2025 October 4, 2025 Los Angeles Times 0458-3035 3638237 Schweid Richard http://archive.org/details/catfishdeltaconf0000schw Catfish and the Delta: Confederate Fish Farming in the Mississippi Delta Ten Speed Press 1992 978-0-89815-454-2 Berkeley, California 24626784 Smothers Ronald May 21, 1988 Fish Tale: Mississippi To Moscow http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/21/us/fish-tale-mississippi-to-moscow.html subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20180201025220/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/21/us/fish-tale-mississippi-to-moscow.html February 1, 2018 October 5, 2025 The New York Times 6 0362-4331 1645522 St. George Donna December 2, 1990 More Than Money at Root of Catfish-Worker Strike https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19901202/1107229/more-than-money-at-root-of-catfish-worker-strike live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005000216/https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19901202/1107229/more-than-money-at-root-of-catfish-worker-strike October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 The Seattle Times 0745-9696 9198928 Tait Vanessa https://books.google.com/books?id=HH_1CwAAQBAJ Poor Workers' Unions: Rebuilding Labor from Below Haymarket Books 2016 978-1-60846-520-0 Updated and Revised 2nd Chicago 123–158 "Organizing Where We Live and Work": The Independent Workers' Center Movement 949931546 2005 Taylor Kieran W. https://books.google.com/books?id=HWolDwAAQBAJ The Mississippi Encyclopedia University Press of Mississippi Sponsored by the Center for the Study of Southern Culture at the University of Mississippi 2017 978-1-4968-1159-2 Ownby Ted Jackson, Mississippi 335–336 Delta Pride Catfish Worker's Strike 959373243 Wilson Charles Reagan Abadie Ann J. Ann J. Abadie Lindsey Odie Thomas James G. Jr. September 6, 1987 Mississippi food workers https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/09/06/Mississippi-food-workersNEWLNBusiness-World-Employees-of-worlds-largest-catfish-processing-plantUnions-success-is-key-victory-in-drive-to-organize-in-Deep-South/7192557899200/ October 5, 2025 United Press International United Press International 1987 December 13, 1990a Delta Pride-union reach tentative agreement https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/12/13/Delta-Pride-union-reach-tentative-agreement/1815661064400/ October 4, 2025 United Press International United Press International 1990a December 14, 1990b Strikers okay pact with Delta Pride https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/12/14/Strikers-okay-pact-with-Delta-Pride/1626661150800/ October 4, 2025 United Press International United Press International 1990b https://books.google.com/books?id=9Bzm5YBRhYoC Racial and Ethnic Tensions in American Communities: Poverty, Inequality, and Discrimination February 2001 United States Commission on Civil Rights VII: The Mississippi Delta Report Washington, D.C. 1–35 Equality of Economic Opportunity United States Commission on Civil Rights 2001 Walker-McWilliams Marcia http://archive.org/details/reverendaddiewya0000walk Reverend Addie Wyatt: Faith and the Fight for Labor, Gender, and Racial Equality University of Illinois Press 2016 978-0-252-04052-8 Urbana, Illinois 958585913 registration Walker-McWilliams Marcia https://books.google.com/books?id=2ld2EQAAQBAJ Africana Social Stratification: An Interdisciplinary Study of Economics, Policy, and Labor Lexington Books 2018 979-8-216-30615-3 Conyers James L. Jr. Lanham, Maryland 87–102 A New Era for Labor? The Promises and Perils of the Fast Food Workers Strike Movement 1536134885 Further reading August 21, 2021e June 11, 2006 Immigration issues real in Delta https://www.chicagotribune.com/2006/06/11/immigration-issues-real-in-delta/ subscription live https://web.archive.org/web/20251005002323/https://www.chicagotribune.com/2006/06/11/immigration-issues-real-in-delta/ October 5, 2025 October 5, 2025 Chicago Tribune 1085-6706 7960243 Category:1990s strikes in the United States Category:1990 in Mississippi Category:1990 labor disputes and strikes Category:African-American history of Mississippi Category:Consumer boycotts Category:Food processing industry in the United States Category:History of African-American civil rights Category:Labor disputes in Mississippi Category:Labor disputes led by the United Food and Commercial Workers Category:Post–civil rights era in African-American history Category:Sunflower County, Mississippi