18th-century glassmaking in the United States

none thumb|upright=0.75|alt=blue container|Salt dish from New Bremen glass factory, Maryland circa 1780s 18th-century glassmaking in the United States began before the country existed. During the previous century, several attempts were made to produce glass, but none were long-lived. By 1700, it is thought that little or no glass was being produced in the British colonies that would eventually become the United States. The first American glass factory operated with long–term success was started by Caspar Wistar in 1745—although two glass works in New Amsterdam that operated in the previous century deserve honorable mention. Wistar's glass works was located in the English colony known as the Province of New Jersey. In the southeastern portion of the Province of Pennsylvania, Henry Stiegel was the first American producer of high–quality glassware known as crystal. Stiegel's first glass works began in 1763, and his better quality glassmaking began in 1769. In the United States, the first use of coal as a fuel for glassmaking furnaces is believed to have started in 1794 at a short-lived factory on the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia. In 1797 Pittsburgh's O'Hara and Craig glass works was also powered by coal, and it contributed to the eventual establishment of Pittsburgh as a leading glassmaking center in the 19th century. Many of the skilled glass workers in the United States during the 17th and 18th centuries came from the German-speaking region of Europe. German–born Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung) employed 342 people in 1788 at his New Bremen glass works located in Frederick County, Maryland. His skilled workers were German. Other prominent glass makers such as Wistar, Stiegel, and the Stanger brothers were also German. In many cases, as a glass works failed, the skilled workers found work at another factory. Other attempts to produce glass were made during the 1600s and 1700s, and a few had some success. Glass works in New Amsterdam and New York City, the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, Philadelphia, and the province of New Jersey's Glassboro are often mentioned by historians. Much of the evidence concerning the 17th century New Amsterdam glass factories has been lost, and a 17th-century Massachusetts glassworks did not last long. The works at Glassboro lasted into the 20th century. However, it is thought that there were no more than a dozen glass works of significant size producing in the United States in 1800. Glassmaking thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Glassblower blowing into blowpipe to create a cylinder of glass and a glassblower stretching the cylinder|Glassblower creating a hollow cylinder as the first step for window glass Glassmakers use the term "batch" for the sum of all the raw ingredients needed to make a particular glass product.Shotwell 2002 32–33 To make glass, the glassmaker starts with the batch, melts it together, forms the glass product, and gradually cools it. The batch is dominated by sand, which contains silica. Smaller quantities of other ingredients, such as soda and limestone, are added to the batch.How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand. Corning https://www.corning.com/worldwide/en/innovation/materials-science/glass/how-glass-made.html July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205218/https://www.corning.com/worldwide/en/innovation/materials-science/glass/how-glass-made.html live Additional ingredients may be added to color the glass. For example, an oxide of cobalt is used to make glass blue.Shotwell 2002 94 Broken and scrap glass, known as cullet, is often used as an ingredient to make new glass. The cullet melts faster than the other ingredients, which results in some savings in fuel cost for the furnace. Cullet typically accounts for 25 to 50 percent of the batch.Shotwell 2002 114–115 The batch is placed inside a pot that is heated by a furnace to roughly 3090 F C on us.An older source quotes a glass works spokesman as saying the furnace is heated to between 2800 F C on us and 3600 F C on us.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 35 Note Tank furnaces, which were created in England in 1870, did not begin to supplant pot furnaces in the United States until the 1890s.Scoville 1944 210 Glassmakers use the term "metal" to describe batch that has been melted together.Shotwell 2002 343 The metal is typically shaped into the glass product (other than plate and window glass) by either glassblowing or pressing it into a mold.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 45 Although pressing glass by hand had long existed, mechanical pressing of glass did not exist until the 1820s—and it was an American invention.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 42 All glass products must then be cooled gradually (annealed), or else they could easily break.Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass Corning Museum of Glass https://www.cmog.org/article/annealing-glass July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205217/https://www.cmog.org/article/annealing-glass live Annealing was originally conducted in the United States using a kiln that was sealed with the fresh glass inside, heated, and gradually cooled.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 48 During the 1860s annealing kilns were replaced in the United States with a conveyor oven, called a lehr, that was less labor-intensive.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 48 Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr Corning Museum of Glass https://allaboutglass.cmog.org/definition/lehr July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205217/https://allaboutglass.cmog.org/definition/lehr live Until the 1760s, most glass produced in what would become the United States was "green" or "bottle" glass, which has a greenish color because of impurities in the sand used in the batch—and a lack of additives used to remove the greenish tint or add a more pleasing color.Purvis 1999 107 Shotwell 2002 224 Weeks United States Census Office 1884 21 Crystal glass, a high quality clear glass that needs an additive known as red lead, began being produced by one works in the Province of Pennsylvania in the 1760s. Weeks United States Census Office 1884 21 Palmer 1979 107 Window glass production during the 18th century involved blowing a cylinder and flattening it.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 20 The crown method and the cylinder method (the latter of which was more advanced) were the two main methods used.Louw 1991 48 One of the major expenses for the glass factories is fuel for the furnace, and this often determined the location of the glass works.United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 12 Wood was the original fuel used by glassmakers in the United States. Coal began being used in the 1790s.United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 13 Alternative fuels such as natural gas and oil did not become available in the United States until the second half of the 19th century.United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 13 Weeks United States Census Office 1884 36 Other important aspects of glassmaking are labor and transportation.Skrabec 2007 97 Glassmaking methods and recipes were kept secret, and most European countries forbade immigration to the United States by glassworkers.Skrabec 2011 20 Master glassmakers, including glassblowers and glass cutters, that had the secret glassmaking knowledge were smuggled from Europe to the United States to provide glassmaking expertise at American factories. Background Early glassmaking in the United States thumb|upright=0.95|alt=map of original 13 British colonies in America|The 13 British American colonies before the United States existed The first attempt to produce glass in what became the United States happened in 1608 in the English (later British) Colony of Virginia near the settlement at Jamestown.Scoville 1944 194 Glass was produced for a few years. A second attempt was made during the 1620s, but production ceased again after only a few years.Scoville 1944 194–195 Glassmaking was conducted for a short time in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay near Salem in the 1640s, and in the province of Pennsylvania near Philadelphia in the 1680s.Scoville 1944 195 At least two works produced glass in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam during portions of the 1650s through 1670s.Knittle 1927 68–69, 73–74 Very little is known about the New Amsterdam glass factories, but it is possible that at least one of them continued producing into the 1760s.Knittle 1927 74 Waterways provided transportation networks for the glass factories before the construction of highways and railroads.Poor 1868 11 The first railroad in the United States was not chartered until 1827, and construction began in 1828.Poor 1868 20 Unless the glass works in New Amsterdam (now New York) was still operating, no glass works are known to have operated in what became the United States from 1700 until close to the 1740s. Most glass was imported from London or Bristol. The English glass industry produced window glass using the crown method, and it produced good quality lead glass (crystal) tableware. The glass industry in German areas of Northern Europe was in a recession, and that situation may have led to Germans coming to the English colonies to produce glass.Palmer 1976 77 Prior to 1800, about two dozen glass works operated in the English colonies that became the United States, and some of them continued production into the 19th century.Palmer 1979 102 18th century Wistar - first long term success thumb|upright=0.75|alt=sign for Wistar glass works|Cream jug made at either Wistarberg or at Glassboro in a plant led by former Wistar workers, Los Angeles County Museum of Art In 1738 Caspar Wistar, a German immigrant and manufacturer of brass buttons in Philadelphia, began plans for a glass works by purchasing land in Salem County, New Jersey.Caspar Wistar's grandson, Dr. Caspar Wistar, became a famous physician.Caspar Wistar 1761-1818 University of Pennsylvania, University Archives and Records Center https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-people/biography/caspar-wistar/ November 13, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113211320/https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-people/biography/caspar-wistar/ live The Wistar Institute - Our Story The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology https://wistar.org/about-wistar/our-story November 13, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113211319/https://wistar.org/about-wistar/our-story live Note Production started in 1739.Shotwell 2002 616–617 Wistar, who was originally from the Palatine region of what is now Germany, hired German glassworkers to make bottles, tableware, and window glass.Shotwell 2002 616–617 Zerwick 1990 71 The cylinder method was used for making the window glass, and bottles were made of a clear green glass.Lanmon Palmer 1976 15 His original partners in the glassmaking project were four glassblowers from German portions of Europe.1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777 Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ November 13, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113171024/https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ liveWhile at least three sources say the four glassblowers were German, at least one source says they were from Belgium.1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777 Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ November 13, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113171024/https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ live Shotwell 2002 617 Zerwick 1990 71 Knittle 1927 86 Note Wistar's glassmaking company was known by multiple names, including United Glass Company, Wistar Glass Works, Wistarberg Glass Works, and Wistarburg Glass Works.Shotwell 2002 617 Although the glass works was approximately 40 mi from Philadelphia, Wistar maintained a Philadelphia residence and sold much of his glass there.Palmer 1979 104 Benjamin Franklin used Wistar's glass for some of his electrical experiments. After Caspar Wistar died in 1752, his son Richard led the glass works. The business continued to grow for about two more years before it began to have problems keeping workers, which led to problems with glass quality. The glassworks operated sporadically beginning in the 1775–1776 winter, and was offered for sale in 1780. Richard Wistar died in 1781. The glass works was eventually closed and abandoned. Wistar began the German domination of American glassmaking that continued until the 19th century.Zerwick 1990 71 Many of Wistar's skilled German workers moved to rival glass companies or started their own glass works, and they taught their methods and styles to others.Palmer 1976 78 Historians often consider Wistar's glass works to be the first commercially successful manufacturer of glass in the United States, although at least one has said the 17th century Smedes or Duijcking–Milyer glass works in New Amsterdam merit consideration.Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn89060136/1920-09-10/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1770&index=1&rows=20&words=Caspar+glass+Wistar&searchType=basic&sequence=0&state=&date2=1963&proxtext=%22Caspar+Wistar%22+glass&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress) September 10, 1920 2023-12-06 2023-11-13 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113181533/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn89060136/1920-09-10/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1770&index=1&rows=20&words=Caspar+glass+Wistar&searchType=basic&sequence=0&state=&date2=1963&proxtext=%22Caspar+Wistar%22+glass&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1 live Zerwick 1990 71 1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777 Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ November 13, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113171024/https://www.wheatonarts.org/7926-2/past-exhibitions/1987-to-1989-exhibitions/1989-the-wistars-and-their-glass-1739-1777/ live McKearin McKearin 1966 78 Knittle 1927 94–95 Stiegel - first lead crystal thumb|upright=0.5|alt=purple roundish bottle|Stiegel pocket bottle, Metropolitan Museum of Art German immigrant Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel, nicknamed "Baron Stiegel", was born in Cologne in 1729. He arrived in Philadelphia in 1750, and moved to Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, a few years later.Knittle 1927 118–119 He married in 1752, and bought out his father–in–law's interest in a plantation that became known as Elizabeth Furnace, which included a blast furnace used to make iron stoves.Elizabeth Furnace Plantation Site Millersville University https://www.millersville.edu/archaeology/research/elizabeth-furnace/ November 21, 2023 November 21, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231121205112/https://www.millersville.edu/archaeology/research/elizabeth-furnace/ live He became a citizen of the English colony of Pennsylvania in 1760, and changed his name to Henry William Stiegel.Knittle 1927 119 Stiegel was the second German to operate an American glass works on a large scale. He built some "glass–ovens" at Elizabeth Furnace in 1762, and began making glass in 1763.Knittle 1927 120 Products were bottles and window glass.Lanmon Palmer 1976 16 He hired European glassblowers, including some from Venice, and paid for their transportation to Pennsylvania.Knittle 1927 121–122 One of his first hires was a glassblower who had worked at the Wistar works. Nearly two years later he started another glass factory in Manheim, Pennsylvania. During 1769, he started a third glass works in the same town that focused on quality tableware, and employed more men that had worked at the Wistar glass plant. Lanmon Palmer 1976 16–17 Knittle 1927 120 He called this works the American Flint Glass Manufactory.Pocket Bottle The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/6635 December 20, 2023 December 20, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231220180918/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/6635 live Stiegel's works was the first to make lead glass in America.Palmer 1979 107 The lead glass of this time period, commonly known as crystal because it was colorless and transparent, was typically used for fine tableware.Shotwell 2002 112 According to the American Philosophical Society, Stiegel's lead glass was "equal in beauty and quality to the generality of Flint Glass, imported from England."Lanmon Palmer 1976 17 Stiegel had retail outlets for his glass at various locations in the English colonies. However, he expanded too fast and ended production in 1774. He was briefly held in a debtors' prison.Lanmon Palmer 1976 17–18 Stanger and Glassboro - nearly 150 years thumb|upright=1.5|alt=old factory with smokestacks|Whitney Glass Works The Stanger family immigrated to Philadelphia in 1768.Stanger family Corning Museum of Glass https://archivesspace.cmog.org/agents/families/5 November 21, 2023 November 21, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231121211447/https://archivesspace.cmog.org/agents/families/5 liveThe family name has been spelled at least seven different ways: Stanger, Stenger, Stinger, Staenger, Steenger, Syanger, and Sanger.Knittle 1927 152 Note They were German glassmakers who came from Hesse, and the family had seven sons. At least one of the sons worked at the Wistar Glass Works. The brothers started a glass works between 1779 and 1781 in what became known as Glassboro, New Jersey.Stanger family Corning Museum of Glass https://archivesspace.cmog.org/agents/families/5 November 21, 2023 November 21, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231121211447/https://archivesspace.cmog.org/agents/families/5 live Knittle 1927 153 The works is believed to have begun producing in the fall of 1781.Van Rensselaer 1926 134 The brothers were led by Solomon (the original land holder) and Daniel Stanger, and their glass works was the second (after Wistar) located in "South Jersey". Their original products were bottles.Knittle 1927 153 By 1784, all of the Stanger brothers had sold their interests in the Glassboro glass works, although they remained working with glass. At that time, Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter controlled the Glassboro works.Knittle 1927 154 In addition to bottles, the company began making window glass and other products. Heston died in 1802, but the factory operated under various owners for over 100 years—including the Whitney brothers who were descendants of Heston.Knittle 1927 154–155 At one time the factory was known as the Olive Glass Works.Van Rensselaer 1926 135 The Whitney brothers became sole owners of the plant in 1839.Knittle 1927 155 The Whitney Glass Works was purchased by one of Michael Owens' companies in 1918.Skrabec 2007 43 Amelung's big investment thumb|upright=0.5|alt=clear goblet with etching|Amelung 1791 goblet, Metropolitan Museum of Art Another German, Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung), arrived in Baltimore on August 31, 1784.Quynn 1948 158 Zerwick 1990 72 He brought 68 German–speaking glass workers, and at least 14 more joined him a few months later. He purchased land in Frederick County, Maryland along Bennett's Creek to the north and east of Sugarloaf Mountain.Quynn 1948 158 He called the area "NewBremen", and built a glassmaking furnace and housing for his workers.Quynn 1948 159Sources conflict over Amelung building a glass works. An obscure glassworks known as the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt factory existed on the property.Lanmon Palmer 1976a 26 Amelung never mentioned the previous works. It is not known if Amelung demolished the old works, or if he modified and added to it.Lanmon Palmer 1976a 26, 28 A Frederick newspaper article mentioned the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt glass factory, and notes that glassmaking in the area began around 1759.Preservation Matters: Glass–Making Located in Frederick https://www.fredericknewspost.com/news/politics_and_government/preservation-matters-glass-making-located-in-frederick/article_a96f2dc0-82cd-505a-baa9-438af8f0f8d2.html November 22, 2023 Frederick News–Post August 1, 2020 Martinkosky Christina November 22, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231122210022/https://www.fredericknewspost.com/news/politics_and_government/preservation-matters-glass-making-located-in-frederick/article_a96f2dc0-82cd-505a-baa9-438af8f0f8d2.html live Note On February 11, 1785, he announced that a group of "German manufacturers have arrived and will establish a factory", and that "window glass, table glass, optical glass, looking glass" would be their products. In 1788 Amelung employed 342 people at his glass works.Quynn 1948 167 Window glass was made using the cylinder method and the crown method.Lanmon Palmer 1976a 27 Archaeological evidence suggests his bottles were made with a transparent green glass that did not require molds. During 1788 he applied for a loan from the State of Maryland, and received the loan plus tax exemption for five years. Over the next two years his glassmaking facilities had at least two fires that did an undetermined amount of damage. Amelung had financial difficulties, and the glass works was offered for sale in 1795.Quynn 1948 174 Amelung had invested more money in glassmaking than anyone ever had (at the time), and his factory produced impressive quality glass—but his business failed after 11 years.Zerwick 1990 72 Amelung died in 1798.Lanmon Palmer 1976a 38 18th-century works still operating in the 19th century In 1800 most of the nation's glass products came from Europe, and the United States was thought to have about ten glass factories.Dyer Gross 2001 23This count excludes at least two glass factories, one in Ohio and one in Baltimore, that began production during 1800.McKearin McKearin 1966 132 Daniel 1949 107 Lanmon Palmer 1976b 41 Note The domestic glass works were typically located near waterways that provided a transportation resource. Although some high–quality tableware may have been produced in Philadelphia or Baltimore, most glass factories produced bottles or window glass.McKearin McKearin 1966 132 Philadelphia–New Jersey thumb|upright=0.5|alt=gold flask with face on it|Kensington Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art Kensington Glass Works: In 1771 Robert Towars and James Leacock started the Kensington Glass Works in Philadelphia's Kensington neighborhood.Shotwell 2002 277 Although glass factories had already been established near Philadelphia in Bucks and Lancaster counties, this was the first 18th century glass works in Philadelphia County. The works may have used coal to power its furnace, possibly making it among the first American works to do so. During November 1772, John Elliott, Samuel Elliott, and Isaac Gray gained control of the factory and they called it the Philadelphia Glass Works. Products were window glass, white glass, and green glass.McKearin McKearin 1966 584 Glass was made sporadically (including periods of idleness that lasted for years) under various owners throughout the next century. Stanger Brothers: The Stanger Brothers glass works in Glassboro, New Jersey, is believed to have begun production in 1781. In 1783 Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter gained control of the plant. The factory operated under various owners (including descendants of Heston) until it was purchased in 1918.Knittle 1927 154–155 Skrabec 2007 43 Maryland thumb|upright=0.5|alt=gold flask with ear of corn on it|Baltimore Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art Aetna Glass–House: Thomas Johnson, first governor of Maryland, owned the Aetna Glass House—which was sometimes referred to as the Johnson Glass Works. The plant was located southeast of Frederick, Maryland, on Bush Creek, and production began in 1792. Products were bottles, and window glass was also made later.Lanmon Palmer 1976b 39 This works was offered for sale in November 1793, and it was operated only intermittently until 1807.Oland 1973 272 All glassmaking in Frederick County ended by the 1820s.Lanmon Palmer 1976b 41 A. Kohlenberg's New Glassworks: In 1797 Adam Kohlenberg and John Christian Gabler purchased a portion of Amelung's land on Bennet's Creek in Frederick County, Maryland. The land included one of the glass ovens used by Amelung's failed glass works, and Kohlenberg employed some of the glassworkers from Amelung's New Bremen works. Kohlenberg's works produced glass intermittently for about 15 years. Federal Hill Glass Works: In 1799 Frederick Amelung, son of John Frederick Amelung, built a glass works in Baltimore. The company name was Frederick M. Amelung and Company, and the glass works was located in Baltimore's Federal Hill neighborhood. The works is often called Federal Hill Glass Works or the Baltimore Glass Works, but was also called the Patapsco River Glass House and the Hughes Street Works because of its location. McKearin McKearin 1966 116 Daniel 1949 103–104 Knittle 1927 297 The factory began producing in 1800, and its products were bottles and glassware. Amelung lost financial control of the company in the early 1800s, but he remained as plant superintendent until 1806.Lanmon Palmer 1976b 42 The works was still producing in the late 1820s, and it became known for "pictorial flasks".Lanmon Palmer 1976b 43 Pittsburgh thumb|upright=1.5|alt=old map of Pittsburgh showing the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers merging to form the Ohio River|Pittsburgh 1795 Pittsburgh Glass Works (O'Hara and Craig): In 1796 Colonel James O'Hara and Major Isaac Craig began planning for the first glass works in Pittsburgh, which was also one of the first to use coal as a fuel for its furnaces.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 83 Peter William Eichbaum, who had been involved with the Schuylkill glass works near Philadelphia that used coal for its furnaces, provided the glassmaking expertise and supervised the construction of the Pittsburgh works.McKearin McKearin 1966 129 The plant was originally located at Coal Hill (now Mount Washington) on the south shore of the Monongahela River close to where it becomes the Ohio River.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 20 Actual glass production started in June 1797, making it the first to produce glass in the United States west of the Allegheny Mountains.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 82 Shotwell 2002 430 The factory was called Pittsburgh Glass Works, and Eichbaum was its superintendent. In 1798, Eichbaum leased the factory, but control returned to O'Hara and Craig in 1800. Window glass, bottles, and other hollow ware were produced.McKearin McKearin 1966 587 Craig left the business in 1804, and O'Hara was the only owner through 1818. The glassworks continued operations, under various owners and names, until 1883.Shotwell 2002 430 New Geneva Glass Works: In 1795 Albert Gallatin formed a partnership with James Nicholson (Gallatin's brother–in–law) and three others. They purchased land in western Pennsylvania's Fayette County for the purpose of commercial development, and they named their land New Geneva. Their location gave them access to the Monongahela River, which gave them access to the west using waterways. They also had access to the east coast using roads that connected to Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, DC.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 18 In September 1797 the partnership made an agreement with five German glassblowers to start a glass works.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 19 Production began in 1798 shortly after production at the O'Hara and Craig works began in Pittsburgh. Weeks United States Census Office 1884 83 Albert Gallatin & Co.: 1795-1803 http://www.carnegielibrary.org/research/pittsburgh/patentees/albertgallatinco.html Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh August 7, 2014 https://web.archive.org/web/20140607043352/http://www.carnegielibrary.org/research/pittsburgh/patentees/albertgallatinco.html June 7, 2014 dead The works was about 45 mi south of O'Hara and Craig's Pittsburgh glass works.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 18–19 Among his workers, mostly Germans, were former employees of the Amelung works.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 82 Gallatin's glass company was originally called Gallatin & Company, but later it became the New Geneva Glass Works. Gallatin sold his share of the company in 1803. The works was moved across the Monongahela River in 1807, making its new location at Greensboro in Greene County.McKearin McKearin 1966 586 This site provided access to coal, and the works continued until 1847.Albert Gallatin & Co.: 1795-1803 http://www.carnegielibrary.org/research/pittsburgh/patentees/albertgallatinco.html Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh August 7, 2014 https://web.archive.org/web/20140607043352/http://www.carnegielibrary.org/research/pittsburgh/patentees/albertgallatinco.html June 7, 2014 dead Ohio Glass Works: In May 1799 Hugh Scott bought land on the north side of the Ohio River close to the O'Hara and Craig glass works. He started the Ohio Glass Company, and it began producing window glass in 1800.Daniel 1949 100–101 This works shut down by March 1801.Daniel 1949 107 New York–New England thumb|upright=1.5|alt=big bottle or flask with smaller ones|Products of Pitkin Glass Works Pitkin Glass Works: In 1783 William and Elisha Pitkin, and Samuel Bishop, established a glass works in East Hartford, Connecticut (which became part of Manchester in 1823).The Pitkin Glass Works 1783-1830 The Museum of Connecticut Glass https://www.glassmuseum.org/glassworks2.htm December 15, 2023 December 15, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231215213522/https://www.glassmuseum.org/glassworks2.htm live This was the first works in Connecticut to actually be built and produce.Knittle 1927 192–193 Products were bottles of various sizes and colors. J.P.Foster was one of the superintendents. Foster took over management in 1810, and the factory operated until 1830 when timber had become scarce.Knittle 1927 193–194 Peterboro–Goff: David Goff and a group of Connecticut investors established a window glass house in Peterborough (now Peterboro), New York, around 1783. The site was chosen because of the abundance of wood that was used as fuel for the furnaces. Good quality sand was within 20 miles of the factory.Bits of History From the Cottage Lawn Historical House Cazenovia Republican (Newspaper Archive) 12 July 16, 1964 In 1783 David Goff and a company of men.... The factory ceased operations in 1813.Historical Glass Factories of Peterboro Community Media Group, LLC https://eaglenewsonline.com/new/2009/07/21/historical-glass-factories-of-peterboro/ December 15, 2023 Eagle News Online July 21, 2009 December 15, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231215174323/https://eaglenewsonline.com/new/2009/07/21/historical-glass-factories-of-peterboro/ live Superior glass made by competitors, and the depletion of forests that provided wood for fuel contributed to the factory's demise. Albany Glass Works: In 1785 Leonard deNeufville, with associates Jan Heefke and Ferdinand Walfahrt, built the Albany Glass Works at Dowesborough, New York, which was less than 15 mi west of Albany.McKearin McKearin 1966 585 The design of the works was very similar to the design used for Amelung's glass works in Maryland.Huey 1980 37 German workers were used, and production of window glass is believed to have begun in 1786. DeNeufville was a poor financial manager, and the glass works was abandoned by 1790.Huey 1980 38 James Caldwell and associates renovated the abandoned factory in 1792 and began producing window glass. He called his factory the Albany Glass House.Huey 1980 39 A fire severely damaged the factory during the summer of 1794, but by December the old glass works, and a new one, were operating.Huey 1980 42 More financial difficulties in 1795 caused the works to be taken over by Thomas and Samuel Mather.Huey 1980 43 Products were window glass and bottles.Huey 1980 44 The plant is thought to have closed in 1815 due to lack of fuel. Boston Crown Glass Company: Robert Hewes, Samuel Walley, John Gore, and eight others organized the Boston Crown Glass Company on July 6, 1787. Production did not start until November 11, 1793. Original works was located on Essex Street in Boston, and produced high quality window glass.McKearin McKearin 1966 131 Company was reorganized in 1809 with different owners, and a second works was completed during 1811 in South Boston. The company failed in 1827, and one of the glass factories was destroyed by fire in 1929. Other 18th-century glass works Some glass works existed during the 18th century but did not survive into the 19th century. The lists below for each region are in order of when the company started producing.The "Name" in the list of other 18th century glass works is the name of the glass works if available. In cases where there was no name, either the main investor or some type of geographic identifier is used, and "glass works" or "glass house" is not capitalized. The major source for the list is the McKearin & McKearin book, although others have been reviewed.McKearin McKearin 1966 584–587 Purvis 1999 107 Note The Schuylkill glass works, listed below, may have been the first glass factory to use coal to power its furnaces.Many historians cite the O'Hara and Craig Pittsburgh glass works as the first glass plant using coal for fuel. The Pittsburgh works, which lasted much longer than the Schuylkill works, began in 1797 and was managed by Peter William Eichbaum—who also helped start the Schuylkill works. Note Philadelphia area thumb|upright=1.20|alt=old map of eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey with glassmaking center circled|Philadelphia Area Glassmaking Centers 1680-1800 Barge glass works: Jacob Barge began producing glass in 1760 in the Province of Pennsylvania.McKearin McKearin 1966 584 Long Liebeknecht Tvaryanas 2008 320–321 The works was located in Bucks County close to Philadelphia. Archeological evidence indicates that window glass was made using the cylinder method. Various types of bottles were also made. The glass works appears to have operated through 1784.Long Liebeknecht Tvaryanas 2008 320–321 Schuylkill glass works: In 1794 John Nicholson built a glass works on the west side of Philadelphia at the falls of the Schuylkill River.Some historians have said that Nicholson's sometime business partner, Robert Morris, was involved with the Schuylkill glass works, but that is not true. Note Peter William Eichbaum supervised construction of the glass works and provided glassmaking expertise, and production began in 1795.Palmer 1979 104–105 The factory's furnaces were coal powered, which means the works may have been the first American glass plant to use a furnace powered by coal. Bottles were the main product, although a limited quantity of window glass may have been produced.Palmer 1979 105 Financial difficulties and strikes caused by lack of pay caused the works' moveable property to be seized during 1797.Palmer 1979 113 Frederick Maryland thumb|upright=0.75|alt=old map with Frederick and Baltimore area circled|Maryland Glassmaking Centers 1760-1800 Foltz, Kramer & Eberhart: The first significant glass works in Maryland was built in Frederick County, Maryland, around 1780. The investors were Conrad Foltz, Martin Eberhart, and four Kramer brothers (Balthazer, Adam, Martin, and George), and some of these men had worked at the Stiegel glass works. When Foltz died in 1784, the works was sold to John Frederick Amelung.Lanmon Palmer 1976 18–19 Tuscarora Glass House: Thomas Johnson, owner of the Aetna Glass Works, built a small industrial complex that included a glass works. It was located along Tuscarora Creek on the north side of Frederick, Maryland. The complex, which included a mill and tannery, was completed by 1793 or earlier. By 1798 the glass works was "out of repair". New York thumb|upright=1.5|alt=old map of New York from 1796 with Brooklyn circled and two others|Glasshouse Company of New York glass works Glasshouse Company of New York, New Found Land: In 1752 Matthew Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper, Christian Hertell and Johan Martin Greiner agreed to establish a glass works in the city of New York. All of the partners were from New York except Greiner, who was from Saxe-Weimar in Europe. As part of the agreement, Greiner would travel from Europe to New York on February 1 (or when the New Yorkers were ready), and he would lead in the construction of the glass works as well as instruct in glass making.Wall 1926 95 The works was called "the Glass House Company of New York".McKearin McKearin 1966 96 The Glass House Company of New York was located on the Hudson River on land that included the Glass House Farm and became known as New Found Land.McKearin McKearin 1966 97–98 Newspaper advertising indicates that the works was producing by October 1754, and bottles were the main products. The glass works failed some time before 1762.Wall 1926 98–99 In 1767 the works and land was offered for sale.McKearin McKearin 1966 98 Glasshouse Company of New York, New Windsor: During August 1752 Matthew Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper, Christian Hertell purchased land in the Province of New York at New Windsor. It is believed that this land was originally purchased as a source of wood for the Glass House Company of New York's works at Glass House Farm. However, a glass house was erected on the New Windsor property to make bottles and window glass. It is not known for certain if this works continued after the 1767 sale of the works at New Found Land, but some believe the New Windsor works operated until about 1785. Brooklyn Glass Works: In 1754 Loderwyck Bamper started the Brooklyn Glass Works in New York City's Brooklyn borough in the Province of New York.Hunter 1914 152 Products were bottles, but there is little evidence the works actually produced. New England Braintree: Peter Etter, Joseph Crellins, Norton Quincy, and John Franklin started a glass bottle works in the province of Massachusetts near Braintree (now part of Quincy).McKearin McKearin 1966 584 Founders Online - From Benjamin Franklin to John Franklin, 27 September 1750 National Historical Publications and Records Commission, National Archives https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-04-02-0014 November 30, 2023 16 December 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231216054325/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-04-02-0014 live The business failed before 1752, when it was leased to Joseph Palmer. Infrastructure improvements were made, but the works was destroyed by fire around 1756.McKearin McKearin 1966 584 Knittle 1927 103–106 New England Glassworks: Boston businessman Robert Hewes started the New England Glassworks, not to be confused with the New England Glass Company, in 1780.Starbuck 1983 46 The plant was located in Temple, New Hampshire. German glassworkers were employed, but not Hessen deserters from the British army as local lore suggests.Robert Hewes, Glass Manufacturer Corning Museum of Glass https://www.cmog.org/article/robert-hewes-glass-manufacturer December 5, 2023 December 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231205174808/https://www.cmog.org/article/robert-hewes-glass-manufacturer live The works was destroyed by fire almost immediately after construction. The facility was rebuilt and window glass (crown method) was produced during the summer. The works was shut down and abandoned during the winter of 1781–1782 because of financial difficulties.Starbuck 1983 47 India Point glass house: Politician John Brown started a glass works around 1796 at India Point in Providence, Rhode Island. The works made bottles for a nearby distillery, and may have been a small operation. Factory is thought to have been discontinued in 1799.Frank 2003 61–62 New England – Did not operate Darling: In 1747 Thomas Darling was granted sole rights to produce glass in the Connecticut Colony for 20 years, but was unable to fulfill the conditions of the agreement.Hunter 1914 144 Crellins: In 1752 Joseph Crellins was given permission by the Province of Massachusetts Bay colonial governor to begin a glass works provided he could secure German workmen. He could not meet the requirement before the agreement expired.Knittle 1927 102 Windslow: In 1752 Isaac C. Winslow received sole rights to produce glass in the Colony of Rhode Island. It is not believed that glass was ever produced. Future glassmaking 19th century glassmaking in the United States thumb|upright=1.0|alt=blue perfume bottle that looks like a candle with clear glass among the blue|Boston and Sandwich Glass Company perfume bottle on display at the Dallas Museum of Art Glassmaking became difficult in the United States at the beginning of the 19th century. Red lead was a key additive for high–quality glassware and England controlled much of the supply.Skrabec 2011 19 The United States Embargo Act of 1807, and the War of 1812, made red lead extremely difficult for American companies to acquire.Skrabec 2011 18 After the War of 1812, English glass manufacturers began dumping low–priced glass products in the United States, which drove many American glass companies into bankruptcy. The United States Tariff of 1824, which was a protective tariff, helped the American glass industry. Between 1820 and 1840, nearly 70 glass factories were started. Most of these factories were small businesses employing 25 to 40 workers. Higher quality glass became more available when American glass man Deming Jarves, sometimes called the "father of the American glass industry", developed a way to produce red lead from domestic sources of lead oxide.Skrabec 2011 18, 20 The most important innovation for the 1820s was the development of machine pressed glass—pressing glass into a mold.Tillotson 1920 354 Bakewell and Company, New England Glass Company, and Jarves' Boston and Sandwich Glass Company were early users of machine pressed glass technology.Shotwell 2002 444 Glassmaking on the East Coast of the United States peaked before 1850, as plants shifted to Pittsburgh because of the availability of coal for fuel.Skrabec 2011 24 By 1850, the United States had 3,237 free men above age 15 who listed their occupation as part of the glass manufacturing process.United States 1853 lxxi Pennsylvania accounted for 40% of the glassmaking employees. Other states with more than 100 glass workers were New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia (including what is now West Virginia).North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were the southernmost states in the original Thirteen British American colonies, and they all had zero glassmaking employees in the 1850 Census. Note Notes Footnotes Note 30em Citations 30em References 30em Daniel Dorthy December 1949 The First Glasshouse West of the Alleghenies https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/view/2345/2178 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Penn State Libraries Open Publishing The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 32 4 97–113 1769752 December 1, 2023 December 16, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231216071719/https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/view/2345/2178 live Dyer Davis Gross Daniel The Generations of Corning: The Life and Times of a Global Corporation Oxford University Press 2001 Oxford 45437326 978-0-19514-095-8 Frank Caroline Fall 2003 John Brown's India Point https://www.rihs.org/assetts/files/publications/2003_Fall.pdf Rhode Island History 61 51–69 December 15, 2023 December 15, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231215181029/https://www.rihs.org/assetts/files/publications/2003_Fall.pdf live Huey Paul R. 1980 The Albany Glassworks from 1790 to 1800: A Study of American Industry During the Federal Period https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190622 Journal of Glass Studies 22 36–52 24190622 December 15, 2023 December 15, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231215161256/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190622 live Hunter Frederick William Steigel Glass Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, Massachusetts 1914 1383707 https://books.google.com/books?id=xFiEUvtUNIQC&dq=glass+Brooklyn+Bamper&pg=PA152 November 30, 2023 December 4, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231204222309/https://books.google.com/books?id=xFiEUvtUNIQC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=glass+Brooklyn+Bamper&source=bl&ots=bvTP6l74AD&sig=ACfU3U0AKYHE8jqv3LdVA-joJxV3gfyLZw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjRycaQ2OyCAxUmFlkFHXZYCac4HhDoAXoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=glass%20Brooklyn%20Bamper&f=false live Knittle Rhea Mansfield Early American Glass The Century Co. New York, New York 1927 1811743 https://books.google.com/books?id=eP89AAAAYAAJ&q=Early+American+Glass 2023-08-03 2023-07-19 https://web.archive.org/web/20230719144414/https://books.google.com/books?id=eP89AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Early+American+Glass&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwitvMqaiIeAAxUDKFkFHZu0DpUQ6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&q=Early%20American%20Glass&f=false live Lanmon Dwight P. Palmer Arlene M. 1976 The Background of Glassmaking in America https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190008 Journal of Glass Studies 18 Special Bicentennial Issue 14–19 24190008 October 27, 2023 October 27, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231027195950/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190008 live Lanmon Dwight P. Palmer Arlene M. 1976a The New Bremen Glassmanufactory https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190010 Journal of Glass Studies 18 Special Bicentennial Issue 25–38 24190010 October 27, 2023 November 22, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231122203541/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190010 live Lanmon Dwight P. Palmer Arlene M. 1976b The Amelung Postscript https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190011 Journal of Glass Studies 18 Special Bicentennial Issue 39–43 24190011 December 10, 2023 December 10, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231210161124/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190011 live Long David B. Liebeknecht William B. Tvaryanas Damon 2008 Survey at Pennsylvania Glass Factory Site Yields Thousands of Fragments https://www.jstor.org/stable/24191343 Journal of Glass Studies 50 320–321 24191343 December 14, 2023 December 14, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231214212936/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24191343 live Louw Hentie 1991 Window-Glass Making in Britain c.1660-c.1860 and its Architectural Impact https://www.jstor.org/stable/41613689 Construction History 7 47–68 41613689 November 18, 2023 April 18, 2021 https://web.archive.org/web/20210418185707/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41613689 live Madarasz Anne Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center Glass: Shattering Notions Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania 1998 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 39921461 978-0-93634-001-2 McKearin Georghe S. McKearin Helen American Glass Crown Publishers 1966 New York City 1049801744 Oland Dwight D. Fall 1973 The New Bremen Glass Manufactory https://archive.org/details/msa_sc_5881_1_271/page/n21/mode/2up Maryland Historical Magazine 68 3 255–272 December 19, 2023 Palmer Arlene 1976 Glass Production in Eighteenth-Century America: The Wistarburgh Enterprise https://www.jstor.org/stable/1180591 Chicago, Illinois University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum Inc. Winterthur Portfolio 11 75–101 10.1086/495842 1180591 161635810 November 17, 2023 November 17, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231117213022/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1180591 live subscription Palmer Arlene 1979 A Philadelphia Glasshouse, 1794–1797 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190039 Corning, New York Corning Museum of Glass Journal of Glass Studies 21 102–114 24190039 November 29, 2023 December 4, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231204222304/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190039 live Poor Henry V. Poor's Manual of Railroads for 1868–69 H.V. & H.W. Poor 1868 New York City https://books.google.com/books?id=vohS7PpusAQC&q=Poors+Railroad+Manual May 21, 2023 5585553 May 21, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230521164239/https://books.google.com/books?id=vohS7PpusAQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Poors+Railroad+Manual&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjohKfR7Ib_AhUAF1kFHTktC6oQ6AF6BAgDEAI#v=onepage&q=Poors%20Railroad%20Manual&f=false live Purvis Thomas L. Colonial America to 1763 Facts on File 1999 New York City 234080971 978-1-43810-799-8 Skrabec Quentin R. Michael Owens and the Glass Industry Pelican Publishing 2007 Gretna, Louisiana 1356375205 978-1-45560-883-6 Skrabec Quentin R. Edward Drummond Libbey, American Glassmaker McFarland 2011 Jefferson, North Carolina 753968484 978-0-78648-548-2 Shotwell David J. Glass A to Z Krause Publications 2002 Iola, Wisconsin 638 440702171 978-0-87349-385-7 registration https://archive.org/details/glasstoz00davi/page/638 Scoville Warren C. September 1944 Growth of the American Glass Industry to 1880 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826160 Journal of Political Economy 52 3 193–216 10.1086/256182 1826160 154003064 November 2, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113122457/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826160 live subscription Starbuck David R. 1983 The New England Glassworks in Temple, New Hampshire https://www.jstor.org/stable/40968043 Houghton, Michigan Society for Industrial Archeology The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology 9 1 45–64 40968043 December 29, 2023 December 29, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231229210040/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40968043 live Tillotson E. Ward December 1920 Modern Glass-Making – Putting the Glass Industry on a Scientific Basis https://books.google.com/books?id=x-AzU5Nx7UEC&dq=Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA354 New York City Scientific American Publishing Company Scientific American Monthly II 4 351–354 August 25, 2023 November 17, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231117155535/https://books.google.com/books?id=x-AzU5Nx7UEC&dq=Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA354 live United States The Seventh Census of the United States, 1850: Embracing a Statistical View of Each of the States and Territories, Arranged by Counties, Towns, Etc. ... R. Armstrong 1853 Washington, District of Columbia https://books.google.com/books?id=DZWkkJI_b2UC&q=glass&pg=PA120 1049765701 July 6, 2023 July 7, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163458/https://books.google.com/books?id=DZWkkJI_b2UC&pg=PA120&dq=Report+on+manufacturing+industries+in+the+United+States+at+the+seventh+census:+1850&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm_abp6Pr_AhWuM1kFHfmBDNM4ChDoAXoECA0QAg#v=onepage&q=glass&f=false live Quynn Dorthy Mackay September 1948 Johann Friedrich Amelung at New Bremen https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5800/sc5881/000001/000000/000171/pdf/msa_sc_5881_1_171.pdf Baltimore, Maryland Maryland Historical Society Maryland Historical Magazine XLIII 3 155–179 November 22, 2023 November 22, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231122200036/https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5800/sc5881/000001/000000/000171/pdf/msa_sc_5881_1_171.pdf live United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce The Glass Industry. Report on the Cost of Production of Glass in the United States Government Printing Office 1917 Washington https://archive.org/details/glassindustryrep00unit 5705310 Van Rensselaer Stephen Early American Bottles and Flasks Transcript Print. Co. 1926 Peterborough, New Hampshire https://books.google.com/books?id=8gXrAAAAMAAJ&dq=Solomon+stanger&pg=PA134 November 22, 2023 1325741 November 22, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231122181201/https://books.google.com/books?id=8gXrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=Solomon+stanger&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjl69j7ltiCAxWCMlkFHTvyD1oQ6AF6BAgOEAI#v=onepage&q=Solomon%20stanger&f=false live Wall A. J. October 1926 Proposals for Establishing a Glass Works in the City of New York in 1752 https://books.google.com/books?id=BxgLAAAAIAAJ&dq=Proposals+for+Establishing+a+Glass+Works+in+the+City+of+New+York+in+1752&pg=PA95 New York City New York Historical Society The New York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin X 3 95–99 December 12, 2023 December 12, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171934/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxgLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA95&dq=Proposals+for+Establishing+a+Glass+Works+in+the+City+of+New+York+in+1752&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjfv6HZsoqDAxXqLFkFHfDuA3QQ6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=Proposals%20for%20Establishing%20a%20Glass%20Works%20in%20the%20City%20of%20New%20York%20in%201752&f=false live Weeks Joseph D. United States Census Office Report on the Manufacture of Glass U.S. Government Printing Office 1884 Washington, District of Columbia https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot0nAAAAYAAJ&q=report+on+the+manufacture+of+glass June 26, 2023 2123984 July 16, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230716182017/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot0nAAAAYAAJ&q=report+on+the+manufacture+of+glass live Zerwick Chloe A Short History of Glass H.N. Abrams in association with the Corning Museum of Glass 1990 New York 20220721 978-0-81093-801-4 External links Jamestown and New Jersey - University of Central Florida History Department Glass of H.W. Stiegel - Corning Museum of Glass Stanger-Whitney-Glassboro - Rowan University Category:History of glass Category:Cultural history of the United States