1900 Galveston hurricane

Category 4 Atlantic hurricane Galveston hurricane other hurricanes that impacted Galveston Galveston hurricane (disambiguation) the 1900 Galveston hurricane, also known as Hurricane One other storms of the same name List of storms named One yes August 2026 July 2022 Hurricane One1900 Galveston hurricane 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map (high quality) (19877020).jpg Surface weather analysis of the hurricane on September 8, just before landfall A weather map showing the storm near Texas. Tight contour rings pressure are close to the center, indicating an intense hurricane August 27, 1900 September 11, 1900 September 15, 1900 125 936 2023 6,000–12,000 (Deadliest in U.S. history; fourth-deadliest Atlantic hurricane) 1251000000 Lesser Antilles, Greater Antilles (Dominican Republic and Cuba landfalls), Turks and Caicos Islands, Bahamas, Gulf Coast of the United States (Texas landfall), Midwestern United States, Mid-Atlantic, New England, Eastern Canada 1900 Atlantic hurricane season The 1900 Galveston hurricaneTrumbla, Ron http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/magazine/galv_hurricane/welcome.html#intro The Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900 NOAA Celebrates 200 Years of Science, Service and Stewardship National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration May 12, 2017 February 3, 2019 (otherwise known as the Great Galveston hurricane and the Galveston Flood and known regionally as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm)Rhor Monica May 19, 2016 Great Storm of 1900 brought winds of change http://www.houstonchronicle.com/local/history/article/Great-Storm-of-1900-brought-winds-of-change-7724171.php Houston Chronicle February 3, 2019Stephens Sara G. December 31, 2012 Portrait of a Legend: The Great Storm of 1900: St. Mary's Orphan Asylum https://www.houstonfamilymagazine.com/features/portrait-of-a-legend-the-great-storm-of-1900-st-marys-orphan-asylum/ Houston Family Magazine February 3, 2019 was a catastrophic tropical cyclone that became the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States.NOAA Press Release https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/NOAApr10.html August 29, 2021 www.nhc.noaa.gov The strongest storm of the 1900 Atlantic hurricane season, it left between 6,000 and 12,000 fatalities; the number most cited in official reports is 8,000. Most of these deaths occurred in and near Galveston, Texas, after the storm surge inundated the coastline city with 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.7 m) of water. As of 2026, it remains the fourth deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record. In addition to the number killed, the storm destroyed about 7,000 buildings in Galveston, which included 3,636 demolished homes; every dwelling in the city suffered some degree of damage. The hurricane left approximately 10,000 people in the city homeless, out of a total population of fewer than 38,000. The disaster ended the Golden Era of Galveston; the hurricane alarmed potential investors, who turned to Houston instead. In response to the storm, three engineers designed and oversaw plans to raise the Gulf of Mexico shoreline of Galveston Island by 17 ft m on and erect a 10 mi km on seawall. On August 27, 1900, a ship east of the Windward Islands detected a tropical cyclone, the first observed that year. The system proceeded to move steadily west-northwestward and entered the northeastern Caribbean on August 30. It made landfall in the Dominican Republic as a weak tropical storm on September 2. It weakened slightly while crossing Hispaniola before re-emerging into the Caribbean Sea later that day. On September 3, the cyclone struck modern-day Santiago de Cuba Province and then slowly drifted along the southern coast of Cuba. Upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September 6, the storm strengthened into a hurricane. Significant intensification followed and the system peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph km/h on 5 on September 8. Early on the next day, it made landfall to the south of Houston.In local time, Central Standard Time (CST), the hurricane made landfall in Texas around 8:00 p.m. on September 8. However, government meteorological agencies such as NOAA use Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is six hours ahead of CST.https://www.worldtimeserver.com/time-zones/cst/ Central Standard Time Zone – CST November 14, 2015 WorldTimeServer.com December 29, 2018 "nb" The cyclone weakened quickly after moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity late on September 9. The storm turned east-northeastward and became extratropical over Iowa on September 11. The system strengthened while accelerating across the Midwestern United States, New England, and Eastern Canada before reaching the Gulf of St. Lawrence on September 13. After striking Newfoundland later that day, the storm entered the North Atlantic Ocean and weakened, with the remnants last observed near Iceland on September 15. The storm brought flooding and severe thunderstorms to portions of the Caribbean, especially Cuba and Jamaica. It is likely that much of South Florida experienced tropical storm winds, though mostly minor damage occurred. Hurricane-force winds and storm surge inundated portions of southern Louisiana, though the cyclone left no significant structural damage or fatalities in the state. The hurricane brought strong winds and storm surge to a large portion of east Texas, with Galveston suffering the brunt of the impact. Farther north, the storm and its remnants continued to produce heavy rains and gusty winds, which downed telegraph wires, signs, and trees in several states. Fatalities occurred in other states, including fifteen in Ohio, two in Illinois, two in New York, one in Massachusetts, and one in Missouri. Damages from the storm throughout the U.S. exceeded US$34 million.All damage figures pertaining to the United States are in 1900 USD, unless otherwise noted "nb" The remnants also brought severe impact to Canada. In Ontario, damages reached about C$1.35 million, with CAD$1 million to crops.All damage figures pertaining to Canada are in 1900 CAD, unless otherwise noted "nb" The remnants of the hurricane caused at least 52 deaths – and possibly as many as 232 deaths – in Canada, mostly due to sunken vessels near Newfoundland and Saint-Pierre. Throughout its path, the storm caused more than $35.4 million in damages ($1.3 billion in 2023).The Canadian dollar and United States dollar were roughly identical in value between January 1879 and August 1914.https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/dollar_book.pdf Powell, James December 2005 A History of the Canadian Dollar Bank of Canada 97 December 30, 2018 "nb" Meteorological history 1900 Galveston hurricane path.png left 300px The path of the 1900 Galveston hurricane. It begins over the open Atlantic Ocean and crosses Hispaniola and Cuba as a tropical storm. The storm strengthens over the Gulf of Mexico, becoming a Category 4 before striking Texas. The cyclone then moves north and eventually recurves east-northeastward over the Midwest. After that, the system tracks across the Midwest and eastern Canada, before reaching the Atlantic again and ending near Iceland new The storm is believed to have originated from a tropical wave which moved off the west coast of Africa and then emerged into the Atlantic Ocean.Frank 130 However, this is not certain because of the limited observational methods available to contemporary meteorologists, with ship reports being the only reliable tool for observing hurricanes.http://www.hurricanescience.org/science/observation/ships/ships/ Ship-based Observations Hurricanes: Science and Society University of Rhode Island May 18, 2019 The first formal sighting of the tropical storm occurred on August 27, about 1000 mi km on east of the Windward Islands, when a ship encountered an area of unsettled weather.Frank 130 Over the next couple of days, the system moved west-northwest and is thought to have maintained its intensity as a weak tropical storm, before it passed through the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea on August 31.1900 Major Hurricane Not_Named (1900239N15318) International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship May 29, 2019 1900239N15318 On September 1, Father Reese Gangoite, the director of the Belen College Observatory in Havana, Cuba, noted that the storm was in its formative stages, with only vague indications of a small tropical cyclone to the southwest of Saint Croix. During that day, the system passed to the south of Puerto Rico before it made landfall near Baní, Dominican Republic, early on September 2. Moving west-northwest, the storm crossed the island of Hispaniola and entered into the Windward Passage near Saint-Marc, Haiti, several hours later. The system made landfall on Cuba near Santiago de Cuba during September 3, before it moved slowly west-northwest across the island and emerged into Straits of Florida as a tropical storm on September 5. As the system progressed to the Straits of Florida, Gangoite observed a large, persistent halo around the moon, while the sky turned deep red and cirrus clouds moved northwards. This indicated to him that the tropical storm had intensified and that the prevailing winds were moving the system towards the coast of Texas. However, the United States Weather Bureau (as it was then called) disagreed with this forecast, as they expected the system to recurve and make landfall in Florida before impacting the East Coast.Larson 83 An area of high pressure over the Florida Keys ultimately moved the system northwestward into the Gulf of Mexico, where favorable conditions such as warm sea surface temperatures allowed the storm to intensify into a hurricane. thumb|right|325px|Hurricane track from September 1 to 10|alt=An alternative style track map focusing on the storm's path from September 1–10. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 6, the ship Louisiana encountered the hurricane, and its captain, T. P. Halsey, estimated that the system had wind speeds of 100 mph km/h on 5.Frank 131 The hurricane continued to strengthen significantly while heading west-northwest across the Gulf. On September 7, the system reached its peak intensity with estimated sustained wind speeds of 145 mph km/h on 5, which made it equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. That day, the Weather Bureau realized that the storm was continuing west-northwest across the Gulf of Mexico, rather than turning northward over Florida and the East Coast as it had predicted. However, Weather Bureau director Willis Luther Moore insisted that the cyclone was not of hurricane intensity. The hurricane weakened slightly on September 8 and recurved to the northwest as it approached the coast of Texas, while the Weather Bureau office in Galveston began observing hurricane-force winds by 22:00 UTC. The cyclone made landfall around 8:00 p.m CST on September 8 (02:00 UTC on September 9) to the south of Houston as a Category 4 hurricane. While crossing Galveston Island and West Bay, the eye passed southwest of Galveston.Frank 136 The hurricane quickly weakened after moving inland, falling to tropical storm intensity late on September 9. The storm lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Iowa by 12:00 UTC on September 11. Moving rapidly east-northeastward, the extratropical system re-intensified, becoming the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane over Ontario on September 12. The extratropical remnants reached the Gulf of Saint Lawrence early the following day. After crossing Newfoundland and entering the far northern Atlantic hours later, the remnants of the hurricane weakened and were last noted near Iceland on September 15 where the storm finally dissipated. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-2-1900 (630829).jpg The storm approaches eastern Cuba after it went through the Dominican Republic and Haiti on September 2. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-3-1900 (7012478).jpg A subtropical ridge forms to the north of Bermuda, allowing the storm to continue its westward trajectory through Cuba on September 3. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-4-1900 (290758).jpg The storm continues to bring impacts to Cuba as it moves slowly west on September 4. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-5-1900 (1798399).jpg The storm moves into western Cuba, where it would later emerge into the Gulf of Mexico on September 5. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-6-1900 (119740).jpg The hurricane moves into the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, just northwest of Cuba and the Florida Keys on September 6. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-7-1900 (6977013).jpg The hurricane rapidly strengthens south of Louisiana and the rest of the U.S. Gulf Coast on September 7. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-8-1900 (41089).jpg The hurricane approaches southeast Texas, where it would make landfall near Galveston on September 8. 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-9-1900 (771240).jpg The hurricane moves inland away from the Texas coast after landfall on September 9. Synoptic Weather Bureau maps showing the hurricane's progress through September 2-9, 1900 center Background History of Galveston, Texas Galveston, founded in 1839, had weathered numerous storms, all of which the city survived with ease. In the late 19th century, Galveston was a boomtown with the population increasing from 29,084 people in 1890 to 37,788 people in 1900.https://www.1900storm.com/isaaccline/isaacsstorm.html Isaac's Storm: A Man, A Time, and the Deadliest Hurricane in History Galveston County Daily News May 31, 2019https://texasalmanac.com/sites/default/files/images/CityPopHist%20web.pdf Texas Almanac: City Population History from 1850–2000 Texas Almanac April 18, 2018 The city was the fourth largest municipality in Texas in 1900 and had among the highest per capita income rates in the U.S.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338041/longview_newsjournal/ Galveston marks anniversary of disaster Associated Press September 9, 2000 Longview News-Journal 4A April 18, 2018 Newspapers.com Longview, Texas Galveston had many ornate business buildings in a downtown section called The Strand, which was considered the "Wall Street of the Southwest".https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338300/stargazette/ Babineck, Mark A century ago, hurricane left thousands dead September 4, 2000 Associated Press Star-Gazette 5A April 18, 2018 Newspapers.com Elmira, New York The city's position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas and one of the busiest ports in the nation.https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/etg01 Galveston Wharves Sealy, Edward Coyle Texas State Historical Association July 7, 2017 May 31, 2019 With this prosperity came a sense of complacency,https://www.livescience.com/11365-10-worst-natural-disasters.html The 10 Worst U.S. Natural Disasters Nguyen, Tuan C. November 7, 2007 Live Science May 18, 2019 as residents believed any future storms would be no worse than previous events.However, that view was not universally held by all Texas residents, particularly those advocating other Texas seaports. "Galveston Island, with all its boasted accumulation of people, habitations, wealth, trade and commerce, is but a waif of the ocean, a locality but of yesterday ... liable, at any moment, and certain, at no distant day, of being engulfed and submerged by the self-same power that gave it form. Neither is it possible for all the skillful devices of mortal man to protect this doomed place against the impending danger; the terrible power of a hurricane cannot be ... resisted. I should as soon think of founding a city on an iceberg." – D. E. E. Braman (1857).Braman 46 "nb" In fact, Isaac Cline, director of the Weather Bureau's Galveston office, wrote an 1891 article in the Galveston Daily News stating it would be impossible for a hurricane of significant strength to strike Galveston Island.Heidorn, Keith C. http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/history/icline2.htm Weather people and history: Dr Isaac M. Cline: A Man of Storm and Floods – Part 2. The Weather Doctor September 1, 2000 February 3, 2019 A quarter of a century earlier, the nearby town of Indianola on Matagorda Bay was undergoing its own boom.https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-16-mn-7680-story.html Town Abandoned After 2 Hurricanes: Ruins Mark Once-Busy Texas Port Graczyk, Michael L. Associated Press Los Angeles Times November 16, 1986 June 6, 2019 1875 a powerful hurricane nearly destroyed the town. Indianola was rebuilt,Frantz, Helen B. Handbook of Texas Online: Indianola Hurricanes Texas State Historical Association January 19, 2008 November 27, 2008 https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ydi01 though a second hurricane in 1886 caused most of the town's residents to move elsewhere. Many Galveston residents took the destruction of Indianola as an object lesson on the threat posed by hurricanes. Galveston is built on a low, flat island, little more than a large sandbar along the Gulf Coast. These residents proposed a seawall be constructed to protect the city, but the majority of the population and the city's government dismissed their concerns.https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/benchmarks-september-8-1900-massive-hurricane-strikes-galveston-texas Benchmarks: September 8, 1900: Massive hurricane strikes Galveston, Texas Zalzal, Kate S. September 8, 2016 Earth Magazine May 30, 2019 Cline further argues in his 1891 article that a seawall was not needed because he believes that a strong hurricane would not strike the island. As a result, the seawall was not built, and development activities on the island actively increased its vulnerability to storms. Sand dunes along the shore were cut down to fill low areas in the city, removing what little barrier there was to the Gulf of Mexico. Preparations On September 4, the Weather Bureau's Galveston office began receiving warnings from the central office in Washington, D.C. that a tropical disturbance had moved northward over Cuba. At the time, they discouraged the use of terms such as "hurricane" or "tornado" to avoid panicking residents in the path of any storm event. The Weather Bureau forecasters had no way of knowing the storm's trajectory, as Weather Bureau director Willis Luther Moore implemented a policy to block telegraph reports from Cuban meteorologists at the meteorological observatory of the Colegio de Belén in Havana – considered one of the most advanced meteorological institutions in the world at the time – due to tensions in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War. Moore also changed protocol to force local Weather Bureau offices to seek authorization from the central office before issuing storm warnings.http://www.historynet.com/blown-away.htm Blown Away: Galveston Hurricane, 1900 Roker, Al September 4, 2015 HistoryNet American History Magazine April 18, 2018 Weather Bureau forecasters believed that the storm had begun a northward curve into Florida and that it would eventually turn northeastward and emerge over the Atlantic Ocean. As a result, the central office of the Weather Bureau issued a storm warning in Florida from Cedar Key to Miami on September 5.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32168473/evening_star/ Weather Indications 3 Evening Star September 5, 1900 Washington, D.C. June 2, 2019 Newspapers.com By the following day, a hurricane warning was in effect along the coast from Cedar Key to Savannah, Georgia, while storm warnings were displayed from Charleston, South Carolina, to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, as well as from Pensacola, Florida, to New Orleans, Louisiana.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32168707/evening_star/ Fair Tonight 3 Evening Star September 6, 1900 Washington, D.C. June 2, 2019 Newspapers.com Cuban forecasters adamantly disagreed with the Weather Bureau, saying the hurricane would continue west. One Cuban forecaster predicted the hurricane would continue into central Texas near San Antonio.Larson 83 In Galveston on the morning of September 8, the swells persisted despite only partly cloudy skies. Largely because of the unremarkable weather, few residents saw cause for concern.http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/galveston.htm The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 EyeWitnesstoHistory.com May 31, 2019 Few people evacuated across Galveston's bridges to the mainland, and the majority of the population was unconcerned by the rain clouds that began rolling in by mid-morning. According to his memoirs, Cline personally traveled by horse along the beach and other low-lying areas to warn people of the storm's approach.http://www.1900storm.com/storm/storm3.lasso https://web.archive.org/web/20010124074000/http://www.1900storm.com/storm/storm3.lasso dead January 24, 2001 The 1900 Storm: An Island Washed Away Galveston County Daily News December 18, 2007 However, these accounts by Cline and his brother, Galveston meteorologist Joseph L. Cline, have since been in dispute.Cline 49Larson 103 Although Isaac Cline is credited with issuing a hurricane warning without permission from the Bureau's central office,Moore, Nolan https://listverse.com/2014/07/15/10-tragic-stories-about-americas-deadliest-disaster/ 10 Tragic Stories About America's Deadliest Disaster ListVerse July 15, 2014 June 6, 2019 author Erik Larson points to his earlier insistence that a seawall was unnecessary and his notion that an intense hurricane could not strike the island, with Cline even considering it "simply an absurd delusion" to believe otherwise.Larson 12 Further, according to Larson, no other survivors are known to have corroborated these accounts.Larson 103 Impact Caribbean Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm passing over on August 30, with lower barometric pressures and 2.6 in mm on 3 of rain on the island. In Puerto Rico, the storm produced winds up to 43 mph km/h on at San Juan. In Jamaica, heavy rainfall from the storm caused all rivers to swell. Floodwaters severely damaged banana plantations and washed away miles of railroads. Damages were in the thousands of British pounds.Destructive Storm in Jamaica https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343396/chicago_tribune/ Chicago Tribune September 8, 1900 9 September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com Heavy rains fell in Cuba in association with the cyclone, including a peak 24-hour total of 12.58 in mm on 4 in the city of Santiago de Cuba.Garriott Edward B. West Indian Hurricane of September 1–12, 1900 Monthly Weather Review 28 9 376 September 1900 http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1900.pdf 10.1175/1520-0493(1900)28[371b:WIHOS]2.0.CO;2 1900MWRv...28..371G May 22, 2019 free The city experienced its worst weather since 1877. The southern end of the city was submerged with about 5 ft m on of water. Firefighters and police rescued and aided stranded residents. St. George, a German steamer, ran aground at Daiquirí.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343656/wilkesbarre_times_leader_the_evening/ Bad Storm In Santiago Wilkes-Barre Times Leader, The Evening News September 4, 1900 2 September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com A telegraph from the mayor of Trinidad, who was asking for assistance from the U.S. occupation government, indicated that the storm destroyed all crops and left many people destitute.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23344133/the_new_york_times/ Cyclone in Cuba The New York Times September 7, 1900 1 February 14, 2019 Newspapers.com United States right The hurricane caused great loss of life, with a death toll of between 6,000 and 12,000 people;Weems, John Edward https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ydg02 Galveston Hurricane of 1900 March 21, 2016 Texas State Historical Association December 13, 2018 the number most cited in official reports is 8,000,http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf The deadliest, costliest and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and other frequently requested hurricane facts) 47 August 10, 2011 August 10, 2011 National Climatic Data Center, National Hurricane Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration giving the storm the third-highest number of deaths of all Atlantic hurricanes, after the Great Hurricane of 1780 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998.http://news.trust.org/item/20180829121620-m9it1/ Thomson Reuters Foundation News Meyer, Ava August 29, 2018 Five deadliest hurricanes as toll from Hurricane Maria raised June 21, 2019 The Galveston hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster to strike the United States. This loss of life can be attributed to the fact that officials for the Weather Bureau in Galveston brushed off the reports and they did not realize the threat.http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html Deadly storm came with little warning Houston Chronicle December 17, 2007 September 28, 2017 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20071217220036/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html December 17, 2007 More than US$34 million in damages occurred throughout the United States,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26211580/the_houston_post/ Estimated Losses September 13, 1900 Houston Post 4 February 3, 2019 Newspapers.com with about US$30 million in Galveston County, Texas, alone. If a similar storm struck in 2010, damages would total approximately US$104.33 billion (2010 USD), based on normalization, a calculation that takes into account changes in inflation, wealth, and population. In comparison, the costliest United States hurricanes – Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017 – both caused about US$125 billion in damages.https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/UpdatedCostliest.pdf Costliest U.S. tropical cyclones tables updated January 26, 2018 National Hurricane Center 2 February 3, 2019 The hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the Galveston hurricane of 1900,https://www.history.com/news/how-the-galveston-hurricane-of-1900-became-the-deadliest-u-s-natural-disaster How the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 Became the Deadliest U.S. Natural Disaster Little, Becky The History Channel April 12, 2019 May 2, 2019 the Great Galveston hurricane, and, especially in older documents and publications, the Galveston Flood.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31160166/the_anaconda_standard/ The Death List 1 September 13, 1900 Anaconda Standard May 2, 2019 Newspapers.com It is often referred to by Galveston locals as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm. Florida to Louisiana thumb|Map of the total rainfall from the hurricane across the United States Portions of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds, with a sustained wind speed of 48 mph km/h on in Jupiter and 40 mph km/h on in Key West.http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1898-1900/1900_1.pdf Year 1900 Partagás, José Fernández 97, 99, 105–106 1997 Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration April 13, 2018 Miami, Florida The hurricane left "considerable damage" in the Palm Beach area, according to The New York Times. Many small boats were torn from their moorings and capsized. The bulkhead of the pier was washed away, while docks and several seawalls were damaged.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19187320/the_new_york_times/ Many Wrecks On Florida Coast September 8, 1900 The New York Times 1 April 13, 2018 Newspapers.com Rainfall in the state peaked at 5.7 in mm on in Hypoluxo.http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/1956NHRPreportNo3.pdf 248 National Hurricane Research Project No. 3: Rainfall Associated With Hurricanes (and Other Tropical Disturbances) Schoner, R. W. Molansky, S. July 1956 United States Department of Commerce February 14, 2019 High winds in North Florida downed telegraph lines between Jacksonville and Pensacola.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23272945/natchez_democrat/ Coast Storm Does Damage Natchez Democrat September 7, 1900 1 August 31, 2018 Newspapers.com In Mississippi, the city of Pass Christian recorded winds of 58 mph km/h on.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273022/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/ At Pass Christian September 11, 1900 The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat 12 August 31, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans, Louisiana Tides produced by the storm inundated about 200 ft m on of railroad tracks in Pascagoula (then known as Scranton), while a quarantine station on Ship Island was swept away.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273315/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/ Fierce Gale September 11, 1900 The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat 12 August 31, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans, Louisiana In Louisiana, the storm produced gale-force winds as far inland as DeRidder and as far east as New Orleans, with hurricane-force winds observed in Cameron Parish. Along the coast, storm surge inundated Johnson Bayou, while tides at some locations reached their highest level since the 1875 Indianola hurricane.https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/lahur.pdf Louisiana Hurricane History Roth, David M. April 8, 2010 28 National Weather Service September 1, 2018 Camp Springs, Maryland Winds and storm surge caused severe damage to rice crops, with at least 25% destroyed throughout the state.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273035/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/ Rice Crop Damaged The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat September 11, 1900 12 September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans, Louisiana The community of Pointe à la Hache experienced a near-total loss of rice crops.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273064/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/ Farmers Lose Heavily The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat September 11, 1900 12 September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans, Louisiana Farther east, roads were flooded by storm surge in the communities of Gretna and Harvey near New Orleans, leaving the streets impassable via horses. Winds downed telegraph lines in the southeastern Louisiana in the vicinity of Port Eads. Two men were initially presumed to have drowned after sailing away from Fort St. Philip and not returning in a timely manner,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23331679/the_timespicayune/ Two Lives Lost September 8, 1900 1 The Times-Picayune September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans but they were both later found alive.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343240/the_timesdemocrat/ The Storm Spends Its Fierce Fury The Times-Democrat September 9, 1900 2 September 1, 2018 Newspapers.com New Orleans Texas left|thumb|200px|Floating wreckage near Texas City – typical scene for miles along the waterfront|alt=Floating debris surrounding a boat near Texas City Nearly all of the damage in the United States occurred in Texas, with the worst of it occurring in Galveston. Many communities outside of Galveston also suffered serious damage and it caused many casualties and affected many families economically, with several cities reporting a near or complete loss of all buildings or homes, including Alta Loma, Alvin,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28316468/el_paso_herald/ Huge Wave From the Gulf September 10, 1900 El Paso Herald 5 February 12, 2019 Newspapers.com Angleton, Brazoria, Brookshire, Chenango,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28316599/chicago_tribune/ Eight Dead at Chenango September 10, 1900 Chicago Tribune 3 February 12, 2019 Newspapers.com El Campo,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28317264/victoria_advocate/ Summary of Storm News September 15, 1900 Victoria Advocate 2 February 12, 2019 Newspapers.com Victoria, Texas Pearland, and Richmond. Throughout Texas – in areas other than Galveston – at least $3 million in damages occurred to cotton crops, $75,000 to telegraph and telephone poles, and $60,000 to railroads. At Alvin, 8.05 in mm on of rain fell on September 8, the highest 24-hour total for that city in the month of September. The city suffered nine fatalities and about $50,000 in damages. In West Columbia, the storm destroyed the old capitol building of the former Republic of Texas. Eight deaths occurred in the city. Quintana experienced extensive damage during this storm and a flood in 1899, causing portions of the community to be abandoned. Throughout Brazoria County alone, the hurricane caused nearly $200,000 in damages and 47 deaths. Houston also experienced significant damage. The hurricane wrought damage to many buildings, including a Masonic temple, a railroad powerhouse, an opera house, a courthouse, and many businesses,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28318880/the_houston_post/ Houston Suffered From Storm Houston Post September 10, 1900 3 February 12, 2019 Newspapers.com churches, homes, hotels, and school buildings.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28319003/the_los_angeles_times/ Associated Press Hhuston [sic] A Mass Of Wreckage September 11, 1900 Los Angeles Times 4 February 12, 2019 Newspapers.com Streets were littered with branches from shade trees and downed electrical wires, leaving several roads completely impassable to vehicles. Houston suffered about $250,000 in damages and two deaths, one of which occurred when a man was struck by falling timber. A train heading for Galveston left Houston on the morning of September 8 at 9:45 a.m. CST (15:45 UTC).Bixel 20 It found the tracks washed out, and passengers were forced to transfer to a relief train on parallel tracks to complete their journey. Even then, debris on the track slowed the train's progress to a crawl. The 95 travelers on the train from Beaumont found themselves at the Bolivar Peninsula waiting for the ferry that would carry them to the island. When it arrived, the high seas forced the ferry captain to give up on his attempt to dock. The train crew attempted to return the way they had come, but rising water blocked the train's path.Larson 99-100 Ten refugees from the Beaumont train sought shelter at the Point Bolivar lighthouse with 190 residents of Port Bolivar who were already there. The 85 who stayed with the train died when the storm surge overran the tops of the cars, while every person inside the lighthouse survived.http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html August 28, 2000 Unimaginable devastation: Deadly storm came with little warning Olafson, Steve Houston Chronicle December 18, 2007 https://web.archive.org/web/20071217220036/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html December 17, 2007 dead Galveston right First news from Galveston just received by train that could get no closer to the bay shore than 6 mi km on sqbr where the prairie was strewn with debris and dead bodies. About 200 corpses counted from the train. Large steamship stranded 2 mi km on sqbr inland. Nothing could be seen of Galveston. Loss of life and property undoubtedly most appalling. Weather clear and bright here with gentle southeast wind. G.L. VaughanManager, Western Union, Houston, in a telegram to the Chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau on the day after the hurricane, September 9, 1900Larson 136 left|thumb|215x215px|Loop of the path and storm surge associated with the 1900 Galveston hurricane At the time of the 1900 hurricane, the highest point in Galveston was 8.7 ft m on above sea level. The hurricane brought with it a storm surge of over 15 ft m on that washed over the entire island. Storm surge and tides began flooding the city by the early morning hours of September 8. Water rose steadily from 3:00 p.m. (21:00 UTC) until approximately 7:30 p.m. (01:30 UTC September 9), when eyewitness accounts indicated that water rose about 4 ft m on in just four seconds. An additional 5 ft m on of water had flowed into portions of the city by 8:30 p.m. (02:30 UTC September 9). The cyclone dropped 9 in mm on of precipitation in Galveston on September 8, setting a record for the most rainfall for any 24-hour period in the month of September in the city's history.https://www.weather.gov/hgx/climate_gls_normals_sep September Normals, Means and Extremes for Galveston 2018 National Weather Service Houston/Galveston, Texas December 9, 2018 The highest measured wind speed was 100 mph km/h on just after 6:15 p.m. on September 8 (00:15  UTC September 9), but the Weather Bureau's anemometer was blown off the building shortly after that measurement was recorded. Observer John D. Blagden remained at the station through the height of the storm, taking readings of the mercurial barometer at five-minute intervals until all instruments had been destroyed; his lowest recorded reading was 28.53, the lowest barometric pressure ever recorded in the country at that time. Isaac Cline's own house, one of the substantial structures in the beach section, became a refuge for 50 people during the storm but collapsed in the general wreck, killing 32 of its occupants including Mrs. Cline herself.September 28, 1900 Record of the Hurricane https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-28-1900-5718128/ Baltimore Sun Baltimore, Maryland 2 NewspaperARCHIVE.com Contemporaneous estimates placed the maximum sustained wind speed at 120 mi/h km/h -1 on. However, survivors reported observing bricks, slate, timbers, and other heavy objects becoming airborne, indicating that winds were likely stronger.https://texasalmanac.com/topics/history/galvestons-response-hurricane-1900 Ramos, Mary G. After the Great Storm: Galveston's response to the hurricane of 1900 Texas Almanac 2008 December 22, 2018 Later estimates placed the hurricane at the higher Category 4 classification on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The lowest recorded barometric pressure was 28.48 inHg mbar 1 on on flip, but this was subsequently adjusted to the storm's official lowest measured central pressure of about 936 mbar inHg on. left|thumb|237px|Searching for bodies in Galveston in the aftermath of the storm of 1900. At the time this film was shot, the stench of hundreds of bodies could be smelled for miles. One body was discovered (but not filmed) while the camera crew was present. Few streets escaped wind damage, and all streets suffered water damage, with much of the destruction caused by storm surge. All bridges connecting the island to the mainland were washed away, while approximately 15 mi km on of railroad track was destroyed. Winds and storm surge also downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires. The surge swept buildings off their foundations and dismantled them. Many buildings and homes destroyed other structures after being pushed into them by the waves, which even demolished structures built to withstand hurricanes. Every home suffered damage, with 3,636 homes destroyed.Cline, Isaac M. September 23, 1900 Special Report on The Galveston Hurricane of September 8, 1900 Weather Bureau Galveston, Texas as archived in Garriott Edward B. West Indian Hurricane of September 1–12, 1900 Monthly Weather Review 28 9 372–374 September 1900 http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1900.pdf 10.1175/1520-0493(1900)28[371b:WIHOS]2.0.CO;2 1900MWRv...28..371G May 20, 2019 free Approximately 10,000 people were left homeless, out of a total population of nearly 38,000.https://www.npr.org/2017/11/30/566950355/the-tempest-at-galveston-we-knew-there-was-a-storm-coming-but-we-had-no-idea The Tempest At Galveston: 'We Knew There Was A Storm Coming, But We Had No Idea' Burnett, John November 30, 2017 NPR December 8, 2018 Portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White who moved from Galveston the day before the hurricane and survived, had his studio and much of his portfolio destroyed.Baker, James Graham; Southwestern Historical Quarterly Vol CXIII; April 2010 The Tremont Hotel, where hundreds of people sought refuge during the storm,https://www.texasarchive.org/library/index.php/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900_-_Panoramic_View_of_Tremont_Hotel Galveston Hurricane of 1900 - Panoramic View of Tremont Hotel The Texas Archive of the Moving Image December 9, 2018 https://web.archive.org/web/20181209125035/https://www.texasarchive.org/library/index.php/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900_-_Panoramic_View_of_Tremont_Hotel December 9, 2018 was severely damaged. James C. Timmins, superintendent of the National Compress Company, who rode out the storm in the hotel and departed Galveston by schooner on September 9, described women and children crowded into the hotel throughout the night, bemoaning the loss of kindred and fortune. He reported the wind blowing steadily from the gulf at about 80 miles an hour from 5 o'clock Saturday evening until midnight, and noted that nearly 200 horse and mule carcasses were visible in the bay the following morning but no human bodies. The destruction of the waterworks power house and the overflow of saltwater into every cistern in the city created what Timmins called the most serious immediate problem facing survivors: a complete water famine.September 14, 1900 Hurricane in Texas https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-14-1900-5718157/ The Oregon Mist St. Helens, Oregon 1 NewspaperARCHIVE.com All public buildings also suffered damage, including city hall –which was completely deroofed – a hospital, a city gas works, a city water works, and the custom house. The Grand Opera House also sustained extensive damage but was quickly rebuilt.http://www.thegrand.com/history-of-the-grand/ History of The Grand The Grand 1894 Opera House December 22, 2018 January 2, 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20190102061758/http://www.thegrand.com/history-of-the-grand/ dead right vertical Images of the destruction from the hurricane in Galveston, Texas 150 Seeking valuables in the wreckage, Galveston, Texas.jpg Galveston Disaster, Texas, body in the ruins on wharf.jpg Wrecked Negro High School Building, Galveston, Texas.jpg Galveston - 1900 homes.jpg A big tip in Galveston2.jpg Relief party working at Ave P and Tremont St.jpg Three schools and St. Mary's University were nearly destroyed. Many places of worship received severe damage or were completely demolished. Of the 39 churches in Galveston, 25 experienced complete destruction, while the others received some degree of damage. St. Mary's Orphans Asylum, owned by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, was occupied by 93 children and 10 sisters. As tides began approaching the property, the sisters moved the children into the girl's dorm, as it was newer and sturdier. Realizing they were under threat, the sisters had the children repeatedly sing Queen of the Waves to calm them. As the collapse of the building appeared imminent, the sisters used a clothesline to tie themselves to six to eight children. The building eventually collapsed. Only three of the children and none of the sisters survived.https://www.1900storm.com/orphanage.html The Sisters of Charity Orphanage Galveston County Daily News December 9, 2018 The few buildings that survived, mostly solidly built mansions and houses along the Strand District, are today maintained as tourist attractions.https://www.galveston.com/downtowntour/ The Strand Galveston.com & Company, Inc February 14, 2019thumb|256x256px|Map illustrating the devastation in Galveston|alt=A map illustrating the devastation in Galveston. There is a dark shaded arch-area, demarcating total destruction in that region of the city|left Early property damage estimates were placed at $25 million. However, itemized estimates from 1901 based on assessments conducted by the Galveston News, the Galveston chamber of commerce, a relief committee, and multiple insurance companies indicated that the storm caused just over $17 million in damages throughout Galveston, including about $8.44 million to residential properties, $500,000 to churches, $656,000 to wharves and shipping properties, $580,000 to manufacturing plants, $397,000 to mercantile buildings, $1.4 million to store merchandise, $670,000 to railroads and telegraph and telephone services, $416,000 to products in shipment, $336,000 to municipality properties, $243,000 to county properties, and $3.16 million to United States government properties. The total also included $115,000 in damages to schools and approximately $100,000 in damages to roads.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26369120/pittsburgh_daily_post/ The Property Loss March 10, 1901 Pittsburgh Daily Post 20 December 20, 2018 Newspapers.com The area of destruction – an area in which nothing remained standing after the storm – consisted of approximately 1900 acres on 4 of land and was arc-shaped, with complete demolition of structures in the west, south, and eastern portions of the city, while the north-central section suffered the least amount of damage.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26052143/the_houston_post/ Map of Galveston, Showing Destruction By The Storm September 27, 1900 Houston Post 7 December 8, 2018 Newspapers.com In the immediate aftermath of the storm, a 3 mi km on long, 30 ft m on wall of debris was situated in the middle of the island.http://www.rockarch.org/publications/conferences/turner.pdf Clara Barton and the Formation of Public Policy in Galveston, 1900 Turner, Elizabeth Hayes University of Houston–Downtown 3–5 December 8, 2018 June 17, 2013 https://web.archive.org/web/20130617153924/http://www.rockarch.org/publications/conferences/turner.pdf bot: unknown Because of the destruction of the bridges to the mainland and the telegraph lines, no word of the city's destruction was able to reach the mainland at first.Galveston May be Wiped Out By Storm The New York Times September 9, 1900 1 May 20, 2019 https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31761433/the_new_york_times/ Newspapers.com thumb|left|300px|Many who died had their corpses piled onto carts for burial at sea.|alt=A horse and buggy transporting bodies On the morning of September 9, one of the few ships at the Galveston wharfs to survive the storm, the Pherabe, set sail and arrived in Texas City on the western side of Galveston Bay with a group of messengers from the city. When they reached the telegraph office in Houston early on September 10, a short message was sent to Texas Governor Joseph D. Sayers and U.S. President William McKinley: "I have been deputized by the mayor and Citizen's Committee of Galveston to inform you that the city of Galveston is in ruins." The messengers reported an estimated 500 dead; this was initially considered to be an exaggeration.Ousley 276 The citizens of Houston knew a powerful storm had blown through and had prepared to provide assistance. Workers set out by rail and ship for the island almost immediately. Rescuers arrived to find the city completely destroyed. A correspondent on the scene described surviving residences and hotels converted into hospitals, with scarcely a standing house that did not contain dead and injured; a grocery store on Tremont Street was packed with the wounded clamoring for food, though the provisions had been ruined by water. Of the soldiers stationed at the Beach barracks, which were destroyed, the loss of life was estimated at nearly a hundred, with only fifteen men surviving to be marched down Market Street. By 11:30 Sunday morning, water had receded from the higher portions of the city, but streets near the bayfront still held ½ to 3 feet of water, and the Galveston News office on Mechanic Street had flooded with its back wall caved in.September 11, 1900 Converted into Hospitals https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-11-1900-5718040/ Dubuque Daily Herald Dubuque, Iowa 1 NewspaperARCHIVE.com A survey conducted by the Morrison and Fourmy Company in early 1901 indicated a population loss of 8,124, though the company believed that about 2,000 people left the city after the storm and never returned. On this basis, the death toll is no less than 6,000,Larson 160 while estimates range up to 12,000. It is believed 8,000 people—20% of the island's population—had lost their lives.Sullivan, Brian K. Korose, Tom Hurricane Ike Set to Slam Texas Coast; Thousands Flee Bloomberg News September 12, 2008 New York Most had drowned or been crushed as the waves pounded the debris that had been their homes hours earlier.Coe 28 A number of fatalities also occurred after strong winds turned debris into projectiles. Many survived the storm but died after several days being trapped under wreckage, with rescuers unable to reach them. The rescuers could hear the screams of the survivors as they walked on the debris trying to rescue those they could.Coe 28 More people were killed in this single storm than the total of those killed in at least the next two deadliest tropical cyclones that have struck the United States since.Larson 146 The Galveston hurricane of 1900 remains the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. The disaster did not even spare the buried dead; a number of coffins, including reportedly that of actor-playwright Charles Francis Coghlan who had died in Galveston the previous year, were washed out of the local cemetery to sea by the storm surge.Charles Coghian's Body Missing. - New York Times - 25 September 1900; pg. 2; Midwest After moving northward from Texas into Oklahoma, the storm produced winds of near 30 mph km/h on at Oklahoma City.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4150721/the_leavenworth_times/ Storm Reached Oklahoma September 11, 1900 Leavenworth Times 8 September 3, 2018 Newspapers.com The extratropical remnants of the cyclone then re-intensified to the equivalence of a tropical storm and continued to strengthen, bringing strong winds to the Midwestern United States. High winds in Missouri toppled a brick wall under construction in St. Joseph, killing a man and severely injuring another.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23386427/st_louis_postdispatch/ One Killed at St. Joseph September 12, 1900 St. Louis Post-Dispatch 2 September 3, 2018 Newspapers.com In Illinois, particularly hard hit was the city of Chicago, which experienced wind gusts up to 84 mph km/h on. Thousands of dollars in damages occurred to roofs, trees, signs, and windows. Several people were injured and two deaths occurred in the city, one from a live wire and the other was a drowning after a boat capsized in Lake Michigan.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23386841/st_louis_postdispatch/ Chicago Badly Damaged September 12, 1900 St. Louis Post-Dispatch 2 September 3, 2018 Newspapers.com In Wisconsin, many weather stations in the northern and central portions of the state recorded at least 1 in mm on of rainfall, including a peak total of 4.25 in mm on in Shawano.Wilson W. M. Report for September, 1900 Climatological Data September 1900 5 9 3–4 https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-93283579-6649-4407-A6F2-ACFE68A1F461.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20200609202237/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-93283579-6649-4407-A6F2-ACFE68A1F461.pdf June 9, 2020 April 12, 2023 Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau National Centers for Environmental Information Milwaukee, Wisconsin Heavy rains fell in parts of Minnesota. The Minneapolis–Saint Paul area recorded 4.23 in mm on of precipitation over a period of 16 hours. Farther north, several washouts occurred, especially in the northern areas of the state. A bridge, along with a few train cars, were swept away during a washout in Cold Spring.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27925827/st_louis_postdispatch/ Twin Cities Visited September 12, 1900 St. Louis Dispatch 2 February 2, 2019 Newspapers.com thumb|Weather Bureau map of the storm over the Midwestern United States on September 11 In Michigan, the storm produced winds around 60 mph km/h on at Muskegon. Tides from Lake Michigan were the highest in several months. According to The Times Herald, the city of Marshall experienced "the severest windstorm of the season", which uprooted trees and damaged several buildings. Throughout the state, winds left at least $12,000 in losses to peach orchards, with many peach trees uprooted. Significant losses to apples and pears also occurred.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23332064/the_times_herald/ Storm in Michigan September 12, 1900 The Times Herald 8 February 2, 2019 Newspapers.com Port Huron, Michigan Rough seas in Lake Erie resulted in several maritime incidents offshore Ohio. The John B. Lyon, a 255 ft m on 3 steamer, capsized about 5 mi km on north of Conneaut. Fourteen out of sixteen crew members drowned. A survivor suggested that the ship being overloaded may have been a factor in its sinking. About 10 mi km on farther north, the schooner Dundee sank, causing at least one death. In another incident nearby, the steamer City of Erie, with about 300 passengers aboard, was hit by a wave that swept over the bulwarks. The engine slowed and the steamers later reached safety in Canada with no loss of lives.http://ohioshipwrecks.org/ShipwreckDetail.php?AR=4&Wreck=10 Explore Shipwrecks: John B. Lyon Ohio State University's Sea Grant College Program November 18, 2018 August 31, 2018 https://web.archive.org/web/20180831024552/http://ohioshipwrecks.org/ShipwreckDetail.php?AR=4&Wreck=10 dead In Toledo, strong winds disrupted telegraph services. Winds also blew water out of parts of the Maumee River and Maumee Bay to such an extent that they were impassable by vessels due to low water levels. A number of vessels were buried in mud several feet deep, while about 20 others were beached.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25493896/the_cincinnati_enquirer/ Water Driven from Toledo Harbor and Vessels Stuck in the Mud September 13, 1900 The Cincinnati Enquirer 2 November 18, 2018 Newspapers.com New York thumb|right|A destroyed iron works in Buffalo|alt=Image showing a building damaged so badly that only the corner remained standing Of the many cities in New York affected by the remnants of the hurricane, Buffalo was among the hardest hit. There, winds peaked at 78 mph km/h on, downing hundreds of electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855320/buffalo_courier/ Great Damage By The Storm In Buffalo September 13, 1900 Buffalo Courier 7 January 31, 2019 Newspapers.com while numerous trees toppled and some branches fell onto roadways. An oil derrick blew away and landed on the roof of a house, crushing the roof and nearly killing the occupants.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855761/buffalo_courier/ Lifted Derricp [sic] From The Ground September 13, 1900 Buffalo Courier 7 January 31, 2019 Newspapers.com A newly built iron works building was virtually destroyed, causing a loss of about $10,000.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855761/buffalo_courier/ New Cast House Was Blown Down September 13, 1900 Buffalo Courier 7 January 31, 2019 Newspapers.com At the Pan-American Exposition, the storm damaged several structures, including part of the government building, while two towers were destroyed. Losses at the exposition alone were conservatively estimated at $75,000.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855841/buffalo_courier/ Exposition's Loss Hard to Estimate September 13, 1900 Buffalo Courier 7 January 31, 2019 Newspapers.com One death occurred in Buffalo after a woman inadvertently touched a downed electrical wire obscured by debris. Several nearby resorts received extensive damage. At Woodlawn Beach, several dozens of small boats and a pier were destroyed. Nearly all vessels owned by the Buffalo Canoe Club suffered severe damage or destruction at Crystal Beach. A toboggan slide and a restaurant were also destroyed. Losses in Crystal Beach reached about $5,000. Heavy crop losses occurred over western New York, with fallen apples and peaches covering the ground at thousands of acres of orchards. Losses reportedly ranged in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855997/buffalo_courier/ Havoc Caused at Nearby Resorts September 13, 1900 Buffalo Courier 7 January 31, 2019 Newspapers.com The rapidly moving storm was still exhibiting winds of 65 mph km/h on while passing well north of New York City on September 12.Course of the Hurricane The New York Times 14 February 3, 2019 https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27960541/the_new_york_times/ September 13, 1900 Newspapers.com The New York Times reported that pedestrian-walking became difficult and attributed one death to the storm. A sign pole, snapped by the wind, landed on a 23-year-old man, crushing his skull and killing him instantly, while two others were knocked unconscious. Awnings and signs on many buildings broke and the canvas roofing at the Fire Department headquarters was blown off. Closer to the waterfront, along the Battery seawall, waves and tides were reported to be some of the highest in recent memory of the fishermen and sailors. Spray and debris were thrown over the wall, making walking along the waterfront dangerous. Small craft in New York Harbor were thrown off course and tides and currents in the Hudson River made navigation difficult.The New York Times The Water High at The Battery https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28309789/the_new_york_times/ 14 February 11, 2019 September 13, 1900 Newspapers.com In Brooklyn, The New York Times reported that trees were uprooted, signs and similar structures were blown down, and yachts were torn from moorings with some suffering severe damage.The Storm in Brooklyn The New York Times https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28309905/the_new_york_times/ 14 February 11, 2019 September 13, 1900 Newspapers.com Because of the direction of the wind, Coney Island escaped the fury of the storm, though a bathing pavilion at Bath Beach suffered damage from wind and waves.City swept by high winds The New York Times https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27960657/the_new_york_times/ 14 February 3, 2019 September 13, 1900 Newspapers.com New England In Connecticut, winds gusted up to about 40 mph km/h on. The apple crops, already endangered by drought conditions, suffered severe damage, with The Boston Globe noting that there was, "hardly an apple left on a tree in the entire state".https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25517568/the_boston_globe/ Connecticut Fruit Crop Gone The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com In the town of Orange, twelve large tents at a fair were ripped. At another fair in New Milford, fifteen tents collapsed, forcing closure of the fair.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520086/hartford_courant/ Wind Broke Up Fairs Hartford Courant September 14, 1900 3 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com Along the coast, the storm produced abnormally high tides, with tides reaching their highest heights in six years at Westbrook. Water reached the bulkheads and remained there for several hours.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520181/hartford_courant/ The Storm at Westbrook Hartford Courant September 14, 1900 3 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com In Rhode Island, the storm left damage in the vicinity of Providence. Telegraph and telephone services were interrupted, but not to such a large extent. Some small crafts in Narragansett Bay received damage, while apple orchards experienced slight losses.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520977/the_boston_globe/ Damage at Providence The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com Lightning produced by the storm ignited several brush fires in Massachusetts, particularly in the southeastern portions of the state, with winds spreading the flames. In Plymouth and other nearby towns, some residents evacuated from the fires by boat. Most cottages around the Big Long, Gallows, Halfway,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25659306/the_boston_globe/ Death Near to Many The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 2 November 24, 2018 Newspapers.com and Little Long ponds were reduced to burning coals.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25659072/the_boston_globe/ Death Near to Many The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 1 November 24, 2018 Newspapers.com In Everett, orchards in the Woodlawn section suffered complete losses of fruit. Two wooden frame building were demolished, while winds also toppled fences throughout the city.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25834569/the_boston_globe/ Everett Was Hit Hard The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 30, 2018 Newspapers.com Winds damaged many telephone and electric wires in Cambridge. A lineman sent to fix the electrical wires nearly died when a pole snapped during a fierce wind gust. Orchards in the city suffered near complete loss and many shade trees were also damaged. At least a few chimneys toppled and several others were left leaning. A bathhouse at Harvard University lost a portion of its tin roof and its copper cornices.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25835585/the_boston_globe/ Many Accidents in Cambridge The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 30, 2018 Newspapers.com At Cape Cod, a wind speed of 45 mph km/h on was observed at Highland Light in North Truro. Waves breached the sand dunes at multiple locations along the cape, with water sweeping across a county road at Beach Point in North Truro. A number of fishing boats sank and several fish houses received severe damage.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25834972/the_boston_globe/ Water Sweeps High on The Cape The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 30, 2018 Newspapers.com One man drowned in a lake near Andover while canoeing during the storm.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31638896/the_boston_globe/ Joseph W. Smith Drowned September 14, 1900 The Boston Globe 7 May 17, 2019 Newspapers.com Strong winds in Vermont generated rough seas in Lake Champlain. Early reports indicated that a schooner sunk near Adams Ferry with no survivors,https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523260/the_burlington_free_press/ Schooner Sunk September 13, 1900 The Burlington Free Press 1 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com but the vessel was later found safely anchored at Westport, New York.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523242/the_chelsea_herald/ Damage From Wind Storm September 20, 1900 The Chelsea Herald 5 Newspapers.com November 19, 2018 Randolph, Vermont According to a man near the lake, all water from the New York portion of the lake was blown to the Vermont side, crashing ashore in waves as high as 15 to 20 ft m on. In the state capital of Montpelier, several large trees at the state house were uprooted. Within Montpelier and vicinity, farmers suffered some losses to apples and corn. Telephone and telegraph services were almost completely cut off. In Vergennes, a number of telephone wires snapped, while many apples, pears, and plums were blown off the trees. Additional damage to fruit and shade trees occurred in Middlebury and Winooski. The city of Burlington experienced its worst storm in many years. Winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires, whereas many trees had severe damage. Some homes were deroofed.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523475/montpelier_evening_argus/ Storm Strikes in Burlington September 12, 1900 Montpelier Evening Argus 1 November 19, 2018 Newspapers.com In New Hampshire, the storm left wind damage in the city of Nashua. Winds tore roofs off a number of buildings, with several roofs landing on the streets or telephone wires. Chimneys in each section of the city collapsed; many people narrowly escaped injury or death. In Nashua and the nearby cities of Brookline and Hollis, thousands of dollars in losses occurred to apple crops, described as "practically ruined".https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25630296/the_boston_globe/ Roofs Flying In Air The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 23, 2018 Newspapers.com The city of Manchester was affected by "one of the most furious windstorms which visited this city in years". Telephone and telegraph communications were nearly completely out for several hours, while windows shattered and trees snapped. Street railway traffic experienced delays.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25630526/the_boston_globe/ Manchester Feels Its Fury The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 November 23, 2018 Newspapers.com In Maine, the storm downed trees and chimney and caused property damage in the vicinity of Biddeford.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31401801/the_boston_globe/ Biddeford Feels the Wind The Boston Globe September 13, 1900 3 May 9, 2019 Newspapers.com Canada From September 12–September 14, the extratropical remnants of the Galveston hurricane affected six Canadian provinces, resulting in severe damage and extensive loss of life. In Ontario, storm surge in Lake Ontario ranged from 8 to 10 ft m on, wreaking havoc on vessels, beaching several boats, destroying a number of boats, and setting some others adrift. Many other vessels canceled or postponed their departures. Winds reached as high as 77 mph km/h on in Toronto, breaking windows throughout the city. A fire broke out at a flour mill in Paris, and the flames were fanned by the storm, resulting in $350,000 in damages to the mill and 50 other stores and offices. High winds downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone lines in many areas. Total crop damage in Ontario alone amounted to $1 million. Impact to crops was particularly severe at St. Catharines, where many apple, peach, pear, and plum orchards were extensively damaged, with a loss of thousands of dollars. One person died in Niagara Falls, when a man attempted to remove debris from a pump station, but he was swept away into the river instead. Maximum rainfall in Canada reached 3.9 in (100 mm) in Percé, Quebec. thumb|Weather Bureau map of the storm as an extratropical cyclone moving into Canada on September 12 In Nova Scotia, damage was reported in the Halifax area. A plethora of fences and trees fell over, while windows shattered and a house under construction collapsed. Two schooners were driven ashore at Sydney and a brigantine was also beached at Cape Breton Island. Another schooner, known as Greta, capsized offshore Cape Breton Island near Low Point, with the fate of the crew being unknown. On Prince Edward Island, a few barns, a windmill, and a lobster factory were destroyed. Falling trees downed about 40 electrical wires. A house suffered damage after its own chimney fell and collapsed through the roof. Strong winds also tossed a boxcar from its track. A bridge and wharf at St. Peters Bay were damaged. Fruit crops were almost entirely ruined throughout Prince Edward Island. The majority of loss of life in Canada occurred due to numerous shipwrecks off the coasts of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. The overall death toll in Canadian waters is estimated to be between 52 and 232, making this at least the eighth deadliest hurricane to affect Canada. The large discrepancy between the fatality figures is due to the fact that many people were reported missing. Thus, the exact number of deaths is unknown.1900-1 https://www.ec.gc.ca/hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=A386676E-1 November 20, 2009 Environment and Climate Change Canada May 11, 2021 https://web.archive.org/web/20130313113844/https://www.ec.gc.ca/hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=A386676E-1 March 13, 2013 Survivor accounts Writing from Alvin, Texas, on September 10, just two days after the storm, survivor Caroline Richardson described her family's ordeal to her brother in Michigan: "We have just passed through a terrible hurricane that killed little Ned and robbed us of house and home." She described her house collapsing around her, the kitchen going first, then the barn, then the roof carrying away just above her head, before the family spent four full hours lying in an open field without shelter, rain falling in torrents and the wind blowing without ceasing for seven hours. Her grandson, working on a dairy farm thirty miles away, had not yet been heard from. Her daughter-in-law added in a postscript that she had held her baby through the night while scantling fell around her.September 21, 1900 In the Hurricane: Letter from Texas Sufferers Received by S. A. Keyes https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-21-1900-5718139/ Traverse City Morning Record Traverse City, Michigan 3 NewspaperARCHIVE.com D. G. Parker, writing from Port Arthur, Texas on September 13, described riding out the storm in his store building, bracing the plate glass front with long scantling to prevent collapse. His relief party, sent with ice and provisions to Galveston, returned reporting that "no tongue or pen can ever picture the awful ruin": the whole face of the island fronting the sea had been washed away for more than half a block in width, floating bodies could be seen everywhere in the bay and gulf, and the dead beneath the wreckage emitted odors so sickening as to be unbearable. The mayor of Port Arthur, who accompanied the relief party, estimated 10,000 dead as a modest figure, with many hundreds buried under ruins that could not be removed on account of the stench.September 26, 1900 On the Border of the Great Galveston Hurricane https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-26-1900-5718185/ The Freeborn County Standard Albert Lea, Minnesota 4 NewspaperARCHIVE.com Aftermath Galveston was effectively obliterated.http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/09/12/galveston.1900/#cnnSTCText Hurricane destroyed Galveston in 1900 CNN Wildmoon, K. C. September 8, 2008 October 5, 2016 With the city in ruins and railroads to the mainland destroyed, the survivors had little to live on until relief arrived. On September 9, Galveston city officials established the Central Relief Committee for Galveston Storm Sufferers (CRC), chaired by Mayor Walter C. Jones. The CRC was composed of subcommittees for specific aspects of relief efforts, including burial of the deceased, correspondence, distribution of food and water, finances, hospitalization and rehabilitation for the injured, and public safety. The dead bodies were so numerous that burying all of them was impossible. Initially, bodies were collected by "dead gangs" and then given to 50 African American men – who were forcibly recruited at gunpoint – to load them onto a barge. About 700 bodies were taken out to sea to be dumped. However, after gulf currents washed many of the bodies back onto the beach, a new solution was needed. Funeral pyres were set up on the beaches, or wherever dead bodies were found, and burned day and night for several weeks after the storm. The authorities passed out free whiskey to sustain the distraught men conscripted for the gruesome work of collecting and burning the dead.http://ultimatehistoryproject.com/galveston-hurricane-1900.html The Great Galveston hurricane of 1900 Van Riper, A. Bowdoin The Ultimate History Project February 16, 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20131207221607/http://ultimatehistoryproject.com/galveston-hurricane-1900.html December 7, 2013 Contemporary accounts reported that 46 corpses were counted beneath the piling of a single wharf, and that nearly 100 persons had already been shot by authorities for either refusing to assist with relief efforts or being caught in the act of robbing the dead.September 26, 1900 On the Border of the Great Galveston Hurricane https://newspaperarchive.com/other-clipping-sep-26-1900-5718185/ The Freeborn County Standard Albert Lea, Minnesota 4 NewspaperARCHIVE.com With thousands dead and roughly 2,000 survivors leaving the city and never returning according to a Morrison and Fourmy Company survey, Galveston initially experienced a significant population decline.Larson 160 Between 1907 and 1914, Congregation B'nai Israel rabbi Henry Cohen and philanthropist Jacob Schiff spearheaded the Galveston Movement. Cohen, Schiff, and others created the movement to draw Jewish immigrants away from the crowded area along the East Coast and toward cities farther west, such as Galveston. Although approximately 10,000 Jewish immigrants arrived in Galveston during this period, few settled in the city or the island, but about one-fourth of them remained in Texas.https://www.isjl.org/texas-galveston-encyclopedia.html Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities – Galveston, Texas Goldring/Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life May 17, 2019 The 1910 Census reported a population of 36,891 people in Galveston. Although a decline from the 1900 Census, the population loss of thousands of people was nearly reversed.https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2015/september_2015.html U.S. Census Bureau History: 1900 Galveston Hurricane September 2015 United States Census Bureau May 17, 2019 In the months prior to the hurricane, valet Charles F. Jones and lawyer Albert T. Patrick began conspiring to murder wealthy businessman William Marsh Rice in order to obtain his wealth. Patrick fabricated Rice's legal will with the assistance of Jones. Rice's properties in Galveston suffered extensive damage during the storm. After being informed of the damage, Rice decided to spend $250,000, the entire balance of his checking account, on repairing his properties. With the duo realizing that they would fail to obtain Rice's wealth, Patrick convinced Jones to kill Rice with chloroform as he slept. Immediately after murdering Rice, Jones forged a large check to Patrick in Rice's name. However, Jones misspelled Patrick's name on the check, arousing suspicion and eventually resulting in their arrests and convictions. Rice's estate was used to open an institute for higher learning in Houston in 1912, which was named Rice University in his honor.https://www.heritagesociety.org/william-marsh-rice William March Rice and His Legacy The Historical Society at Sam Houston Park May 16, 2019 Rebuilding 200px|thumb|right|A plaque placed on buildings in Galveston to indicate which structures survived the 1900 hurricane|alt=A building with a plaque reading "1900 Storm Survivor", with the year 2000 at the top and 1900 again at the bottom Survivors set up temporary shelters in surplus United States Army tents along the shore. They were so numerous that observers began referring to Galveston as the "White City on the Beach".Bixel 70-71 In the first two weeks following the storm, approximately 17,000 people resided in these tents, vacant storerooms, or public buildings. Others constructed so-called "storm lumber" homes, using salvageable material from the debris to build shelter.Bixel 70-71 The building committee, with a budget of $450,000, opened applications for money to rebuild and repair homes. Accepted applicants were given enough money to build a cottage with three 12 by 12 ft m on rooms. By March 1901, 1,073 cottages were built and 1,109 homes had been repaired.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28399431/pittsburgh_daily_post/ Work of Committees March 10, 1901 Pittsburgh Daily Post 20 February 14, 2019 Newspapers.com Winifred Bonfils, a young journalist working for William Randolph Hearst, was the first reporter on the line at the hurricane's ground zero in Galveston. She delivered an exclusive set of reports and Hearst sent relief supplies by train.Kramarae 343 By September 12, Galveston received its first post-storm mail. The next day, basic water service was restored, and Western Union began providing minimal telegraph service.Bixel 74 Within three weeks of the storm, cotton was again being shipped out of the port.Bixel 76 Numerous cities, businesses, organizations, and individuals made monetary donations toward rebuilding Galveston. By September 15, less than one week after the storm struck Galveston, contributions totaled about $1.5 million. More than $134,000 in donations poured in from New York City alone. Five other major cities – St. Louis, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia – had also donated at least $15,000 by September 15. By state, the largest donations included $228,000 from New York, $67,000 from Texas, $56,000 from Illinois, $53,000 from Massachusetts, and $52,000 from Missouri. Contributions also came from abroad, such as from Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, England, and South Africa, including $10,000 each from Liverpool and Paris. Andrew Carnegie made the largest personal contribution, $10,000, while an additional $10,000 was donated by his steel company.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26534743/some_of_the_contributions_to_the/ Some of the Contributions to the Relief Fund The Topeka Daily Capital September 15, 1900 1 February 14, 2019 Newspapers.com 30em #ACE1AF left It was one of those monstrosities of nature which defied exaggeration and fiendishly laughed at all tame attempts of words to picture the scene it had prepared. The churches, the great business houses, the elegant residences of the cultured and opulent, the modest little homes of laborers of a city of nearly forty thousand people; the center of foreign shipping and railroad traffic lay in splinters and debris piled twenty feet above the surface, and the crushed bodies, dead and dying, of nearly ten thousand of its citizens lay under them. Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross, after viewing the destruction in Galveston Clara Barton, the founder and president of the American Red Cross and famous for her responses to crises in the latter half of the 19th century, responded to the disaster and visited Galveston with a team of eight Red Cross workers. This would be the last disaster that Barton responded to, as she was 78 years old at the time and would retire in 1904. After Barton and the team observed the catastrophe, the Red Cross set up a temporary headquarters at a four-story warehouse in the commercial district. Her presence in Galveston and appeals for contributions resulted in a substantial amount of donations. Overall, 258 barrels, 1,552 pillow cases, and 13 casks of bedding, clothing, crockery, disinfectants, groceries, hardware, medical supplies, and shoes were received at the warehouse, while $17,341 in cash was donated to the Red Cross. Contributions, both monetary gifts and supplies, were estimated to have reached about $120,000. Before the hurricane, Galveston was considered to be a beautiful and prestigious city and was known as the "Ellis Island of the West" and the "Wall Street of the Southwest".https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/07/29/Galveston-was-The-Ellis-Island-of-the-West/2969680760000/ Galveston was 'The Ellis Island of the West' United Press International Dittrick, Paula July 29, 1991 June 14, 2019 However, after the storm, development shifted north to Houston, which reaped the benefits of the oil boom, particularly after the discovery of oil at Spindletop on January 10, 1901.Larson 161 The dredging of the Houston Ship Channel began by 1909,https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rhh11 Houston Ship Channel Sibley, Marilyn M. March 28, 2017 Texas State Historical Association May 18, 2019 which opened in 1914, ending Galveston's hopes of regaining its former status as a major commercial center.http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/governors/rising/sayers-galv.html J.H.W. Stele to Sayers, September 11–12, 1900 March 30, 2011 Texas State Library and Archives Commission February 2, 2019 November 17, 2010 https://web.archive.org/web/20101117083321/http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/governors/rising/sayers-galv.html dead The Galveston city government was reorganized into a commission government in 1901, a newly devised structure wherein the government is made of a small group of commissioners, each responsible for one aspect of governance. This was prompted by fears that the existing city council would be unable to handle the problem of rebuilding the city. The apparent success of the new form of government inspired about 500 cities across the United States to adopt a commission government by 1920. However, the commission government fell out of favor after World War I, with Galveston itself switching to council–manager government in 1960.https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/moc01 Commission Form of Government Rice, Bradley R. Texas State Historical Association June 12, 2010 December 29, 2018 Protection thumb|Seawall, Galveston district|alt=An image of the Galveston Seawall under construction To prevent future storms from causing similar destruction, many improvements to the island were made. The city hired a team of three engineers to design structures for protection from future storms – Alfred Noble, Henry Martyn Robert, and H. C. Ripley.http://1900storm.com/rebuilding/index.lasso https://web.archive.org/web/20010216174355/http://1900storm.com/rebuilding/index.lasso dead February 16, 2001 Post-storm rebuilding considered 'Galveston's finest hour' Smith, Michael A. Galveston County Daily News February 16, 2019 The three engineers recommended and designed a seawall. In November 1902, residents of Galveston overwhelmingly approved a bond referendum to fund building a seawall, passing the measure by a vote of 3,085–21. The first 3 mi km on of the Galveston Seawall, 17 ft m on high, were built beginning in 1902 under the direction of Robert.https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fro96 Robert, Henry Martyn Texas State Historical Association Kline, Charles R. June 15, 2010 June 22, 2019 In July 1904, the first segment was completed, though construction of the seawall continued for several decades, with the final segment finished in 1963.http://www.gthcenter.org/exhibits/seawall/index.html Seawall October 21, 2004 Galveston and Texas History Center, Rosenberg Library December 29, 2018 https://web.archive.org/web/20090321004941/http://www.gthcenter.org/exhibits/seawall/index.html March 21, 2009 dead Upon completion, the seawall stretched for more than 10 mi km on. Another dramatic effort to protect Galveston was its raising, also recommended by Noble, Robert, and Ripley, and similar to the earlier raising of Chicago and Sacramento, California. Approximately 15000000 cuyd on of sand was dredged from the Galveston shipping channel to raise the city, some sections by as much as 17 ft m on. Over 2,100 buildings were raised in the process of pumping sand underneath, including the 3,000-st (2,700-t) St. Patrick's Church. According to historian David G. McComb, the grade of about 500 blocks had been raised by 1911. The seawall was listed among the National Register of Historic Places on August 18, 1977,https://atlas.thc.state.tx.us/NR/pdfs/77001443/77001443.pdf Galveston Seawall National Park Service August 18, 1977 1, 5 February 16, 2019 while the seawall and raising of the island were jointly named a National Historical Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers on October 11, 2001.https://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/40594(265)55 10.1061/40594(265)55 May 16, 2012 Bartee, Clark Third National Congress on Civil Engineering History and Heritage (October 10–13, 2001) Galveston Seawall and Grade Raising Project Located on the Gulf of Mexico, Galveston Island, Texas American Society of Civil Engineers February 16, 2019 subscription A 1915 storm brought storm surge up to 12 ft m on, testing the integrity of the seawall. Although 53 people on Galveston Island lost their lives in the 1915 storm, this was a great reduction from the thousands who died in 1900.Frankenfield, H. C. The Tropical Storm of August 10, 1915 Monthly Weather Review 43 8 August 1915 http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1915.pdf 10.1175/1520-0493(1915)43<405:TTSOA>2.0.CO;2 1915MWRv...43..405G 410 May 17, 2019 Washington, D. C. free Other powerful tropical cyclones would test the effectiveness of the seawall, including Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, and Hurricane Ike in 2008. Carla primarily caused severe coastal flood-related damage to structures unprotected by the seawall.https://www.weather.gov/media/lch/events/txhurricanehistory.pdf Texas Hurricane History Roth, David M. National Weather Service January 6, 2010 47 December 29, 2018 Camp Springs, Maryland Following Hurricane Alicia, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers estimated that the seawall prevented about $100 million in damages. Despite the seawall, Ike left extensive destruction in Galveston due to storm surge, with preliminary estimates indicating that up to $2 billion in damage occurred to beaches, dwellings, hospitals, infrastructure, and ports.https://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/hurricane/2008/ike/impact_report.pdf Hurricane Ike Impact Report December 2008 Chapter III – Economic Environment 35 Federal Emergency Management Agency December 29, 2018 Damage in Galveston and surrounding areas prompted proposals for improvements to the seawall, including the addition of floodgates and more seawalls.https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-30/houston-eyes-designer-bonds-in-quest-for-15-billion-storm-wall Houston Eyes Designer Bonds to Pay for $15 Billion Ike Dike Kaskey, Jack August 30, 2018 Bloomberg News December 29, 2018 New York Open Era and beyond In historiography, the hurricane and the rebuilding afterward divide what is known as the Golden Era (1875–1900) from the Open Era (1920–1957) of Galveston. The most important long-term impact of the hurricane was to confirm fears that Galveston was a dangerous place to make major investments in shipping and manufacturing operations; the economy of the Golden Era was no longer possible as investors fled.Hardwick 13 However, the city experienced a significant economic rebound beginning in the 1920s, when Prohibition and lax law enforcement opened up new opportunities for criminal enterprises related to gambling and bootlegging in the city. Galveston rapidly became a prime resort destination enabled by the open vice businesses on the island. This new entertainment-based economy brought decades-long prosperity to the island.http://galvestontx.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/79 https://web.archive.org/web/20170219095447/http://galvestontx.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/79 February 19, 2017 City of Galveston Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 3 Context 4 April 13, 2011 May 2, 2019 dead To commemorate the hurricane's 100th anniversary in 2000, the 1900 Storm Committee was established and began meeting in January 1998. The committee and then-Mayor of Galveston, Roger Quiroga, planned several public events in remembrance of the storm, including theatrical plays, an educational fundraising luncheon, a candlelight memorial service, a 5K run, the rededication of a commemorative Clara Barton plaque, and the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument.http://1900storm.com/calendar.html 100th anniversary calendar of events Galveston County Daily News December 22, 2018 January 1, 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20190101224515/http://www.1900storm.com/calendar.html dead At the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument, the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word sang "Queen of the Waves" and placed 10 roses and 90 other flowers around the monument to commemorate the 10 nuns and 90 children who perished after the hurricane destroyed the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338041/longview_newsjournal/ Galveston marks anniversary of disaster Associated Press September 9, 2000 Longview News-Journal 4 December 22, 2018 Newspapers.com Longview, Texas Speakers at the candlelight memorial service included U. S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, who was born in Galveston; Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration D. James Baker; and CBS Evening News anchor Dan Rather, who gained fame for his coverage during Hurricane Carla in 1961.https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26423318/el_paso_times/ Hurricane's victims honored throughout the city Associated Press Babineck, Mark September 9, 2000 El Paso Times 16 December 22, 2018 Newspapers.com The Daily News published a special 100th anniversary commemorative edition newspaper on September 3, 2000. The last reported survivor of the Galveston hurricane of 1900, Maude Conic of Wharton, Texas,http://www.elpasogop.org/NewsLetter/Vol1Issue1/OldestLivingRepub.htm Oldest living Texas Republican celebrates 113th birthday El Paso County Republican Party September 2001 May 18, 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20080919075733/http://www.elpasogop.org/NewsLetter/Vol1Issue1/OldestLivingRepub.htm September 19, 2008 died November 14, 2004, at the claimed age of 116, although the 1900 census and other records indicate she was about 10 years younger than that.http://www.grg.org/Adams/G2.HTM Table of False and Exaggerated Claims Gerontology Research Group May 2, 2019 July 24, 2020 https://web.archive.org/web/20200724224019/https://grg.org/Adams/G2.HTM dead The Galveston Historical Foundation maintains the Texas Seaport Museum at Pier 21 in the port of Galveston. Included in the museum is a documentary titled The Great Storm, that gives a recounting of the 1900 hurricane.http://www.galvestonhistory.org/1900_great_storm_theater.asp Galveston Historical Foundation Pier 21 Theater: The Great Storm May 29, 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120622024319/http://www.galvestonhistory.org/1900_Great_Storm_Theater.asp June 22, 2012 deadhttp://www.galvestonhistory.org/The_Great_Storm.asp Galveston Historical Foundation The Great Storm May 29, 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120831153846/http://www.galvestonhistory.org/The_Great_Storm.asp August 31, 2012 dead See also Texas Tropical cyclones History of Galveston, Texas Hurricane Laura (2020), which took a nearly identical track Isaac's Storm, Erik Larson's nonfiction book recounting the hurricane and the life of the Galveston meteorologist Isaac Cline "Wasn't That a Mighty Storm," An American folk song about the hurricane, later popularized by musicians such as Eric Von Schmidt and Tom Rush A Weekend in September, a nonfiction book about the hurricane Notes nb References Bibliography Bixel, Patricia Bellis Turner, Elizabeth Hayes Galveston and the 1900 Storm 2000 University of Texas Press Austin, Texas 978-0-292-70884-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=HMDRBwXnU4EC Bixel Braman's Information About Texas Braman D. E. E. 1857 J. B. Lippincott & Co. Description of Counties Philadelphia, Pennsylvania https://archive.org/details/bramansinformat00bramgoog 46 Braman When the Heavens Frowned Chapter IV: The Galveston Hurricane Firebird Press New York City, New York https://books.google.com/books?id=ojtkQ3srH8gC&pg=PA49 Cline, Joseph 1946 978-1-56554-783-4 Cline Coe, Fanny E. Heroes of Everyday Life The Telegraph Operator 1911 https://archive.org/details/heroeseverydayl00coegoog 28 978-1164668466 Ginn and Co. University of California Coe Frank, Neil L. Chapter 5. The Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900 Hurricane! Coping with Disaster: Progress and Challenges Since Galveston, 1900 55 American Geophysical Union 2003 http://www.agu.org/pubs/booksales/hurricane/Chapter_05galveston.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20090325121125/http://www.agu.org/pubs/booksales/hurricane/Chapter_05galveston.pdf dead March 25, 2009 Hoboken, New Jersey 978-0875902975 Frank Story Of The Galveston Flood Green, Nathan C. 1900 R. H. Woodward Company Chapter VIII Baltimore, Maryland 978-1596057661 https://books.google.com/books?id=LewTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA126 Green Mythic Galveston: reinventing America's third coast Hardwick Susan Wiley 2002 JHU Press Baltimore, Maryland 13 Introduction 0-8018-6887-4 Hardwick - Read online, registration required Kramarae, Cheris Treichler, Paula A. Russo, Ann Amazons, Bluestockings and Crones https://archive.org/details/amazonsbluestock0000kram registration 1992 Kitchener, Ontario Pandora 978-0-04-440863-5 Kramarae Larson Erik Erik Larson (author) 1999 1st https://epdf.pub/isaacs-storm-a-man-a-time-and-the-deadliest-hurricane-in-historyca808414ea5a7d84c694d8a8c46f107332033.html Isaac's Storm: A Man, A Time, and the Deadliest Hurricane in History Crown Publishers New York City, New York 978-0-609-60233-1 Larson Galveston in Nineteen Hundred: The Authorized and Official Record Ousley Clarence 1900 William C. Chase Atlanta, Georgia https://archive.org/details/galvestoninninet00ousl Ousley Further reading 1900 Storm The 1900 Storm 1900storm.com http://www.1900storm.com/ Galveston Newspapers, Inc. December 18, 2007 Greene, Casey Edward Kelly, Shelly Henley 2000 Through a Night of Horrors: Voices from the 1900 Galveston Storm Texas A&M University Press 978-1-58544-228-7 Galveston: The Horrors Of A Stricken City Halstead Murat 1900 American Publishers' Association https://archive.org/details/galvestonhorror00halsgoog July 15, 2009 Lienhard, John H. http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi865.htm Raising Galveston The Engines of Our Ingenuity University of Houston December 18, 2007 McGee W. J. October 1900 The Lessons Of Galveston The National Geographic Magazine XI 10 377–383 https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4OAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA377 July 15, 2007 Moore, Willis L. October 1900 The Weather Bureau and the Gulf Storms The National Magazine XIII 1 542–546 https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542 July 15, 2009 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1900–1901 1 Moore Willis L. 1901 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau (Government Printing Office) Washington 9–10 https://books.google.com/books?id=8F4UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT16 July 15, 2007 Ousley Clarence October 1900 Thrilling Experiences In The Galveston Storm The National Magazine XIII 1 533–542 https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA533 July 15, 2009 Weems, John Edward 1957 Weekend in September Texas A&M University Press 978-0-89096-390-6 registration https://archive.org/details/weekendinseptemb0000weem External links Galveston hurricane of 1900.ogg June 17, 2005 https://archive.today/20110716132022/http://www.startribune.com/blogs/oldnews/archives/28 Sept. 11, 1900: Galveston wiped out el Wire service account published in the Minneapolis Tribune Galveston Hurricane of 1900 Texas Archive of the Moving Image Galveston 1900: Storm of the Century Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by The Portal to Texas History The 1900 Storm – manuscripts, photographs, and other archival holdings from the Galveston and Texas History Center at the Rosenberg Library – including a list of victims The early history of Galveston, by Dr. J. O. Dyer, published 1916, hosted by the *Portal to Texas History The great Galveston disaster, containing a full and thrilling account of the most appalling calamity of modern times including vivid descriptions of the hurricane, published 1900, hosted by the Portal to Texas History When Weather Changed History - Galveston Hurricane – A Weather Channel documentary about the 1900 Galveston hurricane The Deadliest Hurricane in History: A Storm of Unimaginable Magnitude – Erik Larson speaking at the Texas State Capitol Complex about his book, Isaac's Storm, and about the hurricane itself galveston-hurricane-of-1900 1900 Galveston hurricane collapsed Category:Cape Verde hurricanes Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Category:1900s Atlantic hurricane seasons Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes Hurricane Category:Hurricanes in Texas Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Galveston hurricane Category:Hurricanes in Canada Category:Hurricanes in the United States Galveston hurricane