*Manu and *Yemo

Actors in Proto-Indo-European mythology PIE The myth of ine-x-proto Manu and ine-x-proto Yemo is the foundational creation myth of Proto-Indo-European mythology.Lincoln 1975 124 In the story, ine-x-proto Manu kills ine-x-proto Yemo and then fashions the universe from ine-x-proto Yemo's body.Anthony 2007 134–135Lincoln 1975 129Puhvel 1987 285–289Mallory Adams 1997 129–130 ine-x-proto Yemo is sometimes also interpreted as a primordial hermaphrodite.West 2007 358Dandekar Ramchandra N. Vedic mythological tracts 1979 Ajanta Publications Delhi 6917651 Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar The comparative analysis of different Indo-European tales has led scholars to reconstruct an original Proto-Indo-European creation myth involving twin brothers, ine-x-proto Mónus ('Man') and ine-x-proto YémHos ('Twin'), as the progenitors of the world and mankind, and a hero named ine-x-proto Trito ('Third') who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice. Although some thematic parallels can be made with legends of the Ancient Near East, and even of Polynesia or South America, the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of ine-x-proto Manu and ine-x-proto Yemo- make it very likely that the myth discussed here has a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin.Lincoln 1975 124 Following a first paper on the cosmogonical legend of Manu and Yemo, published simultaneously with Jaan Puhvel in 1975 (who pointed out the Roman reflex of the story), Bruce Lincoln assembled the initial part of the myth with the legend of the third man Trito in a single ancestral motif.Lincoln 1976 42–43Anthony 2007 134–135Mallory Adams 2006 435–436 Since the 1970s, the reconstructed motifs of Manu and Yemo, and to a lesser extent that of Trito, have been generally accepted among scholars.See: Puhvel 1987 285–287; Mallory Adams 2006 435–436; Anthony 2007 134–135. West 2007 agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of Trita and Thraētona are debated. According to Polomé 1986, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-Europeans", but the reconstruction of the creation myth of the first Man and his Twin proposed by Lincoln 1975 "makes too unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version". Overview Indo-European cosmogony Reconstruction There is no scholarly consensus as to which of the variants is the most accurate reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth.Polomé 1986 Bruce Lincoln's reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European motif known as "Twin and Man" is supported by a number of scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams, David W. Anthony, and, in part, Martin L. West.See: Puhvel 1987 285–287; Mallory Adams 2006 435–436; Anthony 2007 134–135. West 2007 agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of Trita and Thraētona are debated. Although some thematic parallels can be made with traditions of the Ancient Near East, and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of ine-x-proto Manu and ine-x-proto Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin.Lincoln 1975 124 According to Edgar C. Polomé, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-European", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too [many] unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".Polomé 1986 Creation myth thumb|Yama, an Indic reflex of *Yemo, sitting on a water buffalo. Lincoln reconstructs a creation myth involving twin brothers, ine-x-proto Manu- ('Man') and ine-x-proto Yemo- ('Twin'), as the progenitors of the world and humankind, and a hero named ine-x-proto Trito ('Third') who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.Lincoln 1976 42–43 Regarding the primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Norse and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formula insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it ..." (Rigveda), "... there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above; Ginnungagap there was, but grass nowhere ..." (Völuspá), "... there was Chasm and Night and dark Erebos at first, and broad Tartarus, but earth nor air nor heaven there was ..." (The Birds).Polomé 1986 473 First Warrior To the third man Trito, the celestial gods offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headed serpent named ine-x-proto Ngʷhi ('serpent'; and the Indo-European root for negation).Lincoln 1976 51Anthony 2007 134–135 Trito first suffers at his hands, but fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by a helper-god (the Storm-God or ine-x-proto H₂ner, 'Man'),Anthony 2007 134–135Mallory Adams 2006 437 together they go to a cave or a mountain, and the hero finally manages to overcome the monster. Trito then gives the recovered cattle back to a priest for it to be properly sacrificed.Lincoln 1976 58Anthony 2007 134–135Mallory Adams 1997 138 He is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic deeds the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals.Lincoln 1976 63–64Anthony 2007 134–135 Three functions According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be seen as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".Lincoln 1976 63–64 He has thus interpreted the narrative as an expression of the priests' and kings' attempt to justify their role as indispensable for the preservation of the cosmos, and therefore as essential for the organization of society.Arvidsson 2006 302 The motif indeed recalls the Dumézilian tripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).Anthony 2007 134–135 Primeval hermaphrodite thumb|Ymir sucking the milk of the primeval cow Auðumbla. 1790. Hermann Güntert, stressing philological parallels between the Germanic and Indo-Iranian texts, argued in 1923 for an inherited Indo-European motif of the creation of the world from the sacrifice and dismemberment of a primordial androgyne.Lincoln 1975 122 Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being Yemo was depicted as a two-foldedApril 2024 hermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of Manu, both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together.West 2007 358Dandekar 1979 The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were understood as 'twin', 'bisexual', or 'hermaphrodite', and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, called Yamī (also 'Twin').Puhvel 1987 63Mallory Adams 1997 129West 2007 356–357 The primordial being may therefore have self-sacrificed,Dandekar 1979 or have been divided in two, a male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes that continued the primordial union of the Sky Father (ine-x-proto Dyēus) with the Mother Earth (ine-x-proto Dʰéǵʰōm).West 2007 358 Interpretations The story of Trito served as a model for later epic myths about cattle raiding and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods.Lincoln 1976 63–64 The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper.Lincoln 1976 58, 62 Legacy right|thumb|221x221px|Ancient Roman relief from the Cathedral of Maria Saal showing the infant twins Romulus and Remus being suckled by a she-wolf. Many Indo-European beliefs explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.Mallory Adams 2006 435–436 The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.Mallory Adams 2006 435–436 The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King), depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.Lincoln 1975 125 The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.Lincoln 1976 46 Linguistic evidence Manu and Yemo Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest ine-x-proto Manu ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind') include the Indic Mánu, legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic Mannus (Proto-Germanic gem-x-proto Manwaz), mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes; and the Persian Manūščihr (from Avestan ae-Latn Manūš.čiθra, 'son of Manuš'), Zoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD.Mallory Adams 1997 367Lincoln 1975 134–136 From the name of the sacrificed First King *Yemo ('Twin') derive the Indic Yama, god of death and the underworld; the Avestan Yima, king of the Golden Age and guardian of the Otherworld; the Norse Ymir (from Proto-Germanic gem-x-proto Jumijaz), ancestor of the giants (non jötnar y); and most likely Remus (from Proto-Latin itc-x-proto Yemos or itc-x-proto Yemonos, with the initial /y/ shifting to /r/ under the influence of la Rōmulus), killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus.Lincoln 1975 129Puhvel 1987 285–289Mallory Adams 1997 129–130Anthony 2007 134–135 Latvian lv jumis ('double fruit'), Latin la geminus ('twin', cf. the zodiac sign Gemini) and Middle Irish mga emuin ('twin') are also linguistically related.Lincoln 1975 129Puhvel 1987 289 +Indo-European linguistic descendants (in bold) and thematic echoes (in italic) of the creation myth.See: Lincoln 1975; Puhvel 1987; Mallory Adams 2006; West 2007; Anthony 2007.TraditionFirst PriestFirst KingFirst mammalHeavenly godsProto-Indo-Europeanine-x-proto Manu ('Man')ine-x-proto Yemo ('Twin')Primordial cowSky Father, Storm-god, Divine TwinsIndianMánu, PuruṣaYama, (Manāvī)Manu's bullThe Vedic godsIranianae-Latn Spityura, ae-Latn Manūščihrae-Latn Yima, ae-Latn GayōmartPrimordial ox (ae-Latn Gōšūrvan)–Germanicgem-x-proto Mannusnon Ymir, gem-x-proto TuistoPrimordial cow (Auðhumla)Óðinn and his brothersRomanla Rōmulusitc-x-proto Yemos (la Remus)She-wolfThe senators Trito and Ngʷhi Cognates stemming from the First Warrior ine-x-proto Trito ('Third') include the Vedic sa-Latn Trita, the hero who recovered the stolen cattle from the serpent sa-Latn Vṛtrá; the Avestan ae-Latn Thrita y and ae-Latn Thraētona y ('Third' and 'Son of Third'), who won back the abducted women from the serpent ae-Latn Aži Dahāka; and the Norse non Þriði unset ('Third'), one of the names of non Óðinn unset y.Lincoln 1976 47–48West 2007 260Mallory Adams 1997 138 Other cognates may appear in the Greek expressions grc-Latn trítos sōtḗr (grc τρίτος σωτήρ; 'third saviour'), an epithet of Zeus, and grc-Latn tritogḗneia (grc τριτογήνεια, 'third born' or 'born of Zeus'), an epithet of Athena; and perhaps in the Slavic mythical hero sla Troyan, found in Russian and Serbian legends alike.West 2007 260sla Troyan has been tentatively connected to numeral sla try 'three', Ukrainian uk-Latn troian 'father of triplets/three sons', or considered a possible guardian deity of Russia in pre-Christian times.Bilaniuk Petro B. T. The Ultimate Reality and Meaning in the Pre-Christian Religion of the Eastern Slavs Ultimate Reality and Meaning 11 4 December 1988 254, 258–259 10.3138/uram.11.4.247 free ine-x-proto Ngʷhi, a term meaning 'serpent', is also related to the Indo-European root for negation (ine-x-proto ne-).Lincoln 1976 51Anthony 2007 134–135 Descendent cognates can be found in the Iranian ae-Latn Aži, the name of the inimical serpent, and in the Indo-Aryan sa-Latn áhi ('serpent'), a term used to designate the monstrous serpent Vṛtrá,West 2007 260 both descending from Proto-Indo-Iranian iir-x-proto aj'hi.Witzel Michael Slaying the Dragon across Eurasia 2008 Bengtson John D. In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory: Essays in the Four Fields of Anthropology John Benjamins Publishing Amsterdam 9789027232526 269 +Indo-European linguistic descendants (in bold) and thematic echoes (in italic) of the myth of the First Warrior.See: Lincoln 1976; Mallory Adams 2006; West 2007; Anthony 2007.TraditionFirst warriorThree-headed serpentHelper godStolen presentProto-Indo-Europeanine-x-proto Trito ('Third')ine-x-proto NgʷhiThe Storm-god or ine-x-proto Hanēr ('Man')CattleIndiansa-Latn Tritasa-Latn Vṛtrá (sa-Latn áhi)sa-Latn IndraCowsIranianae-Latn Thraētona ('son of ae-Latn Thrita')ae-Latn Aži Dahāka*ira Vr̥traghnaWomenGermanicnon Þriði, non HymirThree serpentsnon ÞórrGoats (?)Graeco-Romangrc-Latn Heraklesgrc-Latn Geryon, la Cācusgrc-Latn HeliosCattle Comparative mythology Many Indo-European beliefs explain aspects of human anatomy from the results of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.Mallory Adams 2006 435–436 The traditions of sacrificing an animal before dispersing its parts following socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.Mallory Adams 2006 435–436 In the Indo-Iranian version of the myth, his brother Manu also sacrifices the cow, and from the parts of the dead animal are born the other living species and vegetables. In the European reflexes, however, the cow (represented by a she-wolf in the Roman myth) serves only as a provider of milk and care for the twins before the creation.Lincoln 1975 139 This divergence may be explained by the cultural differences between the Indo-Iranian and European branches of the Indo-European family, with the former still strongly influenced by pastoralism, and the latter much more agricultural, perceiving the cow mainly as a source of milk.Lincoln 1975 142–143 According to Lincoln, the Indo-Iranian version best preserves the ancestral motif, since they lived closer to the original Proto-Indo-European pastoral way of life.Lincoln 1975 144 Indo-Iranian Creation myth Mánu ('Man, human') appears in the Rigveda as the first sacrificer and the founder of religious law, the Law of Mánu.Lincoln 1975 134Fortson 2004 27 He is the brother (or half-brother) of Yama ('Twin'), both presented as the sons of the solar deity Vivasvat. The association of Mánu with the ritual of sacrifice is so strong that those who do not sacrifice are named amanuṣāḥ, which means 'not belonging to Mánu', 'unlike Mánu', or 'inhuman'.Lincoln 1975 134–135 The Song of Puruṣa (another word meaning 'man') tells how the body parts of the sacrificed primeval man led to the creation of the cosmos (the heaven from his head, the air from his navel, the earth from his legs) and the Hindu castes (the upper parts becoming the upper castes and the lower parts the commoners).Puhvel 1987 286Fortson 2004 27West 2007 357 In the later Śatapatha Brāhmana, both a primordial bull and Mánu's wife Manāvī are sacrificed by the Asuras (demi-gods). According to Lincoln, this could represent an independent variant of the original myth, with the figure of Yama laying behind that of Manāvī.Lincoln 1975 133–134 alt=|thumb|The Iranian mythical king Yima. c. 1522. After a religious transformation led by Zarathustra around the 7th–6th centuries BC that degraded the status of prior myths and deities, *Manuš was replaced in the Iranian tradition with three different figures: Ahriman, who took his role as first sacrificer; Manūščihr ('son' or 'seed of Manuš'), who replaced him as ancestor of the priestly line; and Zarathustra himself, who took his role as priest fr par excellence. Manūščihr is described in the Greater Bun-dahišnīh as the ancestor of all Mōpats ('High Priests') of Pars, and it has been proposed that *Manuš was originally regarded as the First Priest instead of Zarathustra by pre-Zoroastrian tribes.Lincoln 1975 136 The Indo-Iranian tradition portrays the first mortal man or king, *YamHa, as the son of the solar deity, *Hui-(H)uas-uant.West 2007 357Lubotsky Alexander Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project Leiden University Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon https://www.scribd.com/document/356995296/Lubotsky-Indo-Aryan-Inherited-Lexicon. See entries vivásvant- and yamá- [2] (online database). Invoked in funeral hymns of the Rigveda, Yama is depicted as the first man to die, the one who established the path towards death after he freely chose his own departure from life.Lincoln 1991 32–33 Although his realm was originally associated with feasting, beauty and happiness, Yama was gradually portrayed as a horrific being and the ruler of the otherworld in the Epic and Puranic traditions.Lincoln 1991 32–33 Some scholars have equated this abandonment (or transcendence) of his own body with the sacrifice of Puruṣa.Lincoln 1975 133Puhvel 1987 286 In a motif shared with the Iranian tradition, which is touched in the Rigveda and told in later traditions, Yama and his twin sister Yamī are presented as the children of the sun-god Vivasvat. Discussing the advisability of incest in a primordial context, Yamī insists on having sexual intercourse with her brother Yama, who rejects it, thus forgoing his role as the creator of humankind.Puhvel 1987 63 In pre-Zoroastrian Iran, Yima was seen as the first king and first mortal. The original myth of creation was indeed condemned by Zarathustra, who makes mention of it in the Avesta when talking about the two spirits that "appeared in the beginning as two twins in a dream... (and) who first met and instituted life and non-life".Lincoln 1975 129–130 Yima in particular is depicted as the first to distribute portions of the cow for consumption,West 2007 357–358 and is explicitly condemned for having introduced the eating of meat.Lincoln 1991 38 After a brief reign on earth, the king Yima was said in a later tradition to be deprived of his triple royal nimbus, which embodied the three social classes in Iranian myths. Mithra receives the part of the Priest, Thraētona that of the Warrior, and Kərəsāspa that of the Commoner. The saga ends with the real dismemberment of Yima by his own brother, the daiwic figure Spityura.Lincoln 1975 131–132Puhvel 1987 286West 2007 357–358 In another myth of the Younger Avesta, the primal man Gayōmart (Gaya marətan; 'Mortal Life') and the primeval world ox Gōšūrvan are sacrificed by the destructive spirit Ahriman (Aŋra Mainyu, 'Evil Spirit').Lincoln 1975 136 From the ox's parts came all the plants and animals, and from Gayōmart's body the minerals and humankind.Lincoln 1975 129–130West 2007 357–358 In the Vīdēvdāt, Yima is presented as the builder of an underworld, a sub-terrestrial paradise eventually ruled by Zarathustra and his son. The story, giving a central position to the new religious leader, is once again probably the result of a Zoroastrian reformation of the original myth, and Yima might have been seen as the ruler of the realm of the dead in the early Iranian tradition.Lincoln 1991 38 Norbert Oettinger argues that the story of Yima and the Vara was originally a flood myth, and the harsh winter was added in due to the dry nature of Eastern Iran and Afghanistan, as flood myths didn't have as much of an effect as harsh winters. He has argued that the Videvdad 2.24's mention of melted water flowing is a remnant of the flood myth, and mentions that the Indian flood myths originally had their protagonist as Yama, but it was changed to Manu later in the Puranas, particularly the Vishnu Purana.N. Oettinger, Before Noah: Possible Relics of the Flood myth in Proto-Indo-Iranian and Earlier, [in:] Proceedings of the 24th Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, ed. S.W. Jamison, H.C. Melchert, B. Vine, Bremen 2013, p. 169–183 Legacy The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.Lincoln 1975 125 The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.Lincoln 1976 46 Baltic mythology records a fertility deity Jumis,Lurker Manfred The Routledge Dictionary Of Gods Goddesses Devils And Demons 2004 Routledge 978-04-15340-18-2 95 whose name means 'pair, double (of fruits)'.Oinas, Felix J. (1980). "A Balto-Finnic and Baltic fertility spirit". In: Journal of Baltic Studies, 11:3, pp. 207–211. DOI: 10.1080/01629778000000231 His name is also considered a cognate to Indo-Iranian Yama, and related to Sanskrit yamala 'in pairs, twice' and Prakrit yamala 'twins'.Vainik, Ene. (2014). "Jumala jälgi ajamas" [Tracing back the word jumal 'god']. Mäetagused 58: 21. 10.7592/MT2014.58.vainik. Ranko Matasović cites the existence of Jumala as a female counterpart and sister of Jumis in Latvian lv dainas (folksongs), as another fertility deity,Matasović Ranko Ranko Matasović A Reader in Comparative Indo-European Religion 2018 University of ZagrebBalode Laimute Contacts between the Baltic and Finnic languages 2015 978-952-5667-67-7 Junttila Santeri la Uralica Helsingiensia series 7 University of Helsinki 59–60 Criteria for Identifying Possible Finnicisms in Latvian Toponymy and in the same vein, Zmago Smitek mentioned the pair as having "pronounced vegetational characteristics".Šmitek Zmago 1998 Kresnik: An Attempt at Mythological Reconstruction Studia Mythologica Slavica 1 109 Jumis, whose name can also mean 'double ear of wheat', is also considered a Latvian chthonic deity that lived "beneath the plowed field".Mottz Lotte The Faces of the Goddess 1997 Oxford University Press 0-19-508967-7 New York & Oxford 72 Later Iranian tradition (Pahlavi) attests a brother–sister pair named Jima (Yima) and Jimak (Yimak).Limerov Pavel 2019 Some Motifs in Komi Legends about the Creation of the World Electronic Journal of Folklore 76 34 10.7592/FEJF2019.76.limerov freeBoyce Mary A History of Zoroastrianism 1996 Brill 978-90-04043-19-0 One: The Early Period Leiden; New York; Köln 96 Yimak, or Jamag, is described as Yima's twin sister in the Bundahishn, from Central Iran.Akbarzadeh Daryoosh Spring–Summer 2014 China and the Myth of Jam Journal of Indo-European Studies 42 4 1 & 2 Yima consorts with his sister Yimak to produce humankind, but is later killed by Azi Dahaka.Bhattacharji Sukumari The Indian Theogony: A Comparative Study of Indian Mythology from the Vedas to the Puranas 1970 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-05382-2 93 Sukumari Bhattacharji The name Yama is attested as a compound in personal names of the historical Persepolis Administrative Archives, such as peo-Latn Yamakka and peo-Latn Yamakšedda (from Old Persian peo-Latn Yama-xšaita- 'majestic Yama', modern Jamshid).Hallock Richard T. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip92.pdf Persepolis Fortification Tablets 1969 University of Chicago Press Oriental Institute Publications 92 771–772 Nuristani deity Imra is also considered a reflex of Indo-Iranian Yama. The name ask-Latn Imra is thought to derive from iir-x-proto Yama-raja 'King Yama',Allen Nicholas Justin 1991 Some gods of Pre-Islamic Nuristan https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhr_0035-1423_1991_num_208_2_1679 Revue de l'histoire des religions 208 141–168 10.3406/rhr.1991.1679 2Cacopardo, A.S. (2016). "A World In-between. The Pre-Islamic Cultures of the Hindu Kush". In: Pellò, S.(ed.). Borders. Itineraries on the Edges of Iran. Venezia, Eurasiatica Quaderni di studi su Balcani, Anatolia, Iran, Caucaso e Asia Centrale. Edizioni Ca' Foscari. p. 250. 978-88-6969-100-3 [DOI: 10.14277/6969-100-3/EUR-5-10] a name possibly cognate to the Bangani title gbm-Latn Jim Raza 'god of the dead'.Zoller, Claus Peter. "Review Article: "Pagan Christmas: Winter feast of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush" and the true frontiers of 'Greater Peristan'". In: Acta Orientalia 2018, n. 79. 2018. pp. 217 and 232 (footnote nr. 174). 0001-6438 He is also known as mis Mara "Killer, Death".Parpola, Asko. The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press. 2015. pp. 143 and 264. 978-0-19-022690-9Cacopardo, A.S. (2016). "A World In-between. The Pre-Islamic Cultures of the Hindu Kush". In: Pellò, S.(ed.). Borders. Itineraries on the Edges of Iran. Venezia, Eurasiatica Quaderni di studi su Balcani, Anatolia, Iran, Caucaso e Asia Centrale. Edizioni Ca' Foscari. pp. 251 and 253. 978-88-6969-100-3 [DOI: 10.14277/6969-100-3/EUR-5-10] This name may have left traces in other Nuristani languages: Waigali wbk-Latn Yamrai,Klimburg, Max. "The Arts and Culture of Parun, Kafiristan's «Sacred Valley»". In: Arts asiatiques, tome 57, 2002. pp. 51-68. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/arasi.2002.1480]; www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_2002_num_57_1_1480 Kalash (Urtsun) kls-Latn imbro,Parkes, Peter. "Temple of Imra, Temple of Mahandeu: A Kafir Sanctuary in Kalasha Cosmology". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London 54, no. 1 (1991): 85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/617315. Ashkun ask im'ra, Prasun prn yumr'a and Kati bsh im'ro – all referring to a "creator god".Zoller, Claus Peter. "Review Article: "Pagan Christmas: Winter feast of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush" and the true frontiers of 'Greater Peristan'.". In: Acta Orientalia 2018, n. 79. 2018. p. 232 (footnote nr. 174). 0001-6438Minahan James B. https://books.google.com/books?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia 10 February 2014 ABC-CLIO 9781610690188 205 Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes. 7 January 2021 This deity also acts as the guardian to the gates of hell (located in a subterranean realm), preventing the return to the world of the living – a motif that echoes the role of Yama as the king of the underworld.Boyce, Mary. "The Pre-Zoroastrian Religion of the Medes and the Persians". In: A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under the Achaemenians. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1982. pp. 18-19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004293908_003 Linguist and comparativist Jaan Puhvel proposed that the characters of "Man" and "Twin" are present in Proto-Latin under the names of la Romulus and la Remus (from ine-x-proto Yemo[no]s). The former was deified as god Quirinus, a name he considered to be ultimately derived from ine-x-proto wihₓrós ('man').Puhvel, Jaan. "Devata-Dvandva in Hittite, Greek, and Latin". In: The American Journal of Philology 98, no. 4 (1977): 404-405. Accessed March 3, 2021. doi:10.2307/293802.Puhvel, Jaan. "Remus Et Frater". In: History of Religions 15, no. 2 (1975): 156-157. Accessed March 4, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061928.On a related note, academic John T. Koch suggests that a figure named Euron, attested in the poem Cad Goddeu in relation to Welsh goddess Modron, may ultimately derive from *u̯ironos 'the divine man, hero'.Koch, John T. "Some Suggestions and Etymologies Reflecting upon the Mythology of the Four Branches". In: Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 9 (1989): 6-8. Accessed March 4, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20557203. Following Puhvel's line of argument, Belarusian scholar Siarhiej Sanko attempted to find a Proto-Baltic related pair, possibly named Jumis ('twin') and Viras ('male, hero'). He saw a connection with quasi-historical Prussian king Widewuto and his brother Bruteno. Related to them is a pair of figures named mis Wirschaitos and mis Szwaybrutto (Iszwambrato, Schneybrato, Schnejbrato, Snejbrato), which he interprets as 'Elder' and 'His Brother', respectively.Sańko Siarhiej Shota Aliaksej Podstawowe Składniki Białoruskiej Narracji Sakralnej w Perspektywie Porównawczej pl Politeja 22 2012 167–168 http://www.jstor.org/stable/24920134 3 March 2021 These latter two would, in turn, be connected to the worship, by the Prussians, of stone statues erected during their expansion in the 12th and 13th centuries.Кулаков Владимир Иванович (2017). Каменные изваяния пруссов. Исторический формат, (1-2), 151–169. URL: (дата обращения: 03.03.2021). 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