1557 influenza pandemic

none 1550 Ptolemaic world map by Sebastian Münster.jpg The 1557 flu pandemic spread across Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe. The 1557 flu pandemic spread across Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Influenza Asia, Africa, Europe, Americas 1557–1559 In 1557, a pandemic strain of influenza emerged in Asia, then spread to Africa, Europe, and eventually the Americas. This flu was highly infectious and presented with intense, occasionally lethal symptoms. Medical historians like Thomas Short, Lazare Rivière and Charles Creighton gathered descriptions of catarrhal fevers recognized as influenza by modern physiciansEichel Otto R. December 1922 The Long-Time Cycles of Pandemic Influenza Journal of the American Statistical Association Taylor & Francis 18 140 451 10.1080/01621459.1922.10502488 2276917Taubenberger J.K. Morens D.M. April 2009 Pandemic influenza – including a risk assessment of H5N1 Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 28 1 187–202 10.20506/rst.28.1.1879 0253-1933 2720801 19618626 attacking populations with the greatest intensity between 1557 and 1559.Creighton Charles https://books.google.com/books?id=6AUnWoWZgyAC&q=1557+influenza+pandemic&pg=PA307 A History of Epidemics in Britain: From the extinction of plague to the present time 1894 Oxford University Press Cambridge, England 307–308 en The 1557 flu saw governments, for possibly the first time, inviting physicians to instill bureaucratic organization into epidemic responses.Alibrandi Rosemarie 2018 When early modern Europe caught the flu. A scientific account of pandemic influenza in sixteenth century Sicily Medicina Historica 2 19–26 It is also the first pandemic where influenza is pathologically linked to miscarriages,Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22148/ The Story of Influenza Knobler Stacey L. Mack Alison Mahmoud Adel Lemon Stanley M. 2005 National Academies Press (US) en 2020-05-16 2020-12-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20201223130139/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22148/ live given its first English names, and is reliably recorded as having spread globally. Influenza caused higher burial rates, near-universal infection, and economic turmoil as it returned in repeated waves. Asia According to a European chronicler surnamed Fonseca who wrote Disputat. de Garotillo, the 1557 influenza pandemic first broke out in Asia.Pierson A. L. https://books.google.com/books?id=7x2gAAAAMAAJ&q=1557+epidemic+in+poland&pg=PA92 The Medical Magazine Flint J. B. Bartlett E. 1834 Allan & Ticknor Boston 92 enThompson Theophilus https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=vUEJAAAAIAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA101 Annals of Influenza Or Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in Great Britain from 1510 to 1837 1852 Sydenham Society 101 en 2020-05-28 2021-02-25 https://web.archive.org/web/20210225040844/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=vUEJAAAAIAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA101 live The flu spread west along established trade and pilgrimage routes before reaching the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. An epidemic of a flu-like illness is recorded for September 1557 in Portuguese Goa.Lal Kishori Saran https://books.google.com/books?id=S7U8AQAAIAAJ&q=flu+epidemic+goa+September+1557 Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, A.D. 1000-1800 1973 Research [Publications in Social Sciences] 51 en Europe thumb|415x415px|Influenza entered Europe through the Ottoman Empire and infected sailors from North Africa. In the summer of 1557 parts of Europe had just suffered outbreaks of plague,Creighton Charles https://books.google.com/books?id=CyoJAAAAIAAJ A History of Epidemics in Britain – The type of sickness in 1558 1891 The University Press Cambridge, England 403–407 en 2023-03-18 2022-10-07 https://web.archive.org/web/20221007175339/https://books.google.com/books?id=CyoJAAAAIAAJ live typhus, measles, and smallpox when influenza arrived from the Ottoman Empire and North Africa. The flu spread west through Europe aboard merchant ships in the Mediterranean Sea, again taking advantage of trade and pilgrimage routes. Death rates were highest in children, those with preexisting conditions, the elderly,Dehner George https://books.google.com/books?id=m7u4Ooepl0wC&q=a+pain+in+the+heads+of+queen+marys+court+influenza&pg=PA30 Influenza: A Century of Science and Public Health Response University of Pittsburgh Press 2012 9780822977858 30 and those who were bled.https://books.google.com/books?id=MNgThBfa3sYC&q=1580+influenza+holland&pg=PA854 A System of practical medicine v. 1, 1885 1885 Lea Bros. & Company Philadelphia 854 en Outbreaks were particularly severe in communities suffering from food scarcity. The epidemics of fevers and respiratory illness eventually became referred to as the new sickness in England, new acquaintancehttps://play.google.com/books/reader?id=3fEhAQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA231 The American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children 1919 W. Wood & Company New York 231 en 2020-05-16 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072404/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=3fEhAQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA231 live in Scotland, and coqueluche or simply catarrh by medical historiansImmerman H. https://books.google.com/books?id=P9dNAQAAMAAJ&q=1557+epidemic+naples&pg=PA543 Encyclopedia of Practical Medicine von Jurgenson Th. Liebermeister C. Lenhartz H. Sticker G. 1902 W. B. Saunders Moore John Philadelphia 543 en in the rest of Europe. Because it afflicted entire populations at once in mass outbreaks, some contemporary scholars thought the flu was caused by stars, contaminated vapors brought about by damp weather,Webster Noah https://books.google.com/books?id=qmrynckrEKYC&q=1557 A Brief History of Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases: With the Principal Phenomena of the Physical World, which Precede and Accompany Them, and Observations Deduced from the Facts Stated ... 1800 G.G. and J. Robinson, Paternoster-Row London 131 en or the dryness of the air.Ozanam Jean Antoine François https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=nfY2AQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.RA1-PA186 Historie médicale générale et particulière des maladies épidémiques, contagieuses et épizootiques, qui ont régné en Europe depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'a nos jours 1835 Chez tous les libraires pour la médecine Paris 186 fr 2020-05-28 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072405/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=nfY2AQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.RA1-PA186 live Ultimately the 1557 flu lasted in varying waves of intensity for around four yearshttps://books.google.com/books?id=0ChTAAAAcAAJ&q=Rivi%C3%A8re+epidemie+1557+fevrier&pg=PA95 Journal des connaissances médico-chirurgicales: 1837, Sém. 2 1837 Bureau du Journal 95 fr in epidemics that increased European death rates, disrupted the highest levels of society, and frequently spread to other continents. Ottoman Empire and East Europe thumb|Flu spread over Wallachia into Poland and Lithuania.|alt=|202x202px|left The flu pandemic first reached Europe in 1557 from the Ottoman EmpireParkin John https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=9RcDAAAAQAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA36 Epidemiology; or, The remote cause of epidemic diseases in the animal and in the vegetable creation 1880 J. and A. Churchill London 36 en 2020-03-24 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072350/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=9RcDAAAAQAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA36 live along trade and shipping routes connected to Constantinople, brought to Asia Minor by infected travelers from the Middle East. At the time, the Ottoman Empire's territory included most of the Balkans and Bulgaria. This gave influenza unrestricted access to Athens, Sofia, and Sarajevo as it spread throughout the empire. Influenza set sail from the capital, Constantinople, into the recently conquered North African territories of Tripoli (1551) and the Habesh (1557), from where it likely ricocheted to Malta from North Africa via merchant ships, as during the pandemic of 1510. On land, influenza spread north from the Ottoman Empire over Wallachia to the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania before moving west into continental Europe.December 2020 Sicily, Italian States, and the Holy Roman Empire thumb|Influenza entered Sicily through Palermo's ports.|alt= Influenza arrived in the Kingdom of Sicily in JuneFinkler Ditmar Influenza https://books.google.com/books?id=wWy2ZRmVmY8C&dq=Fonseca+1557+epidemic+from+asia&pg=PA14 Twentieth Century Practice – an International Encyclopedia of Modern Medical Science by Leading Authorities of Europe and America 1898 William Wood and Company 15 12–13 Google Books at Palermo, whence it spread across the island. Church services, Sicilian social life, and the economy were disrupted as the flu sickened a large portion of the population. The Sicilian Senate asked a well-known Palermitan physician named Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia to help combat the epidemic in an advisory capacity, which he accepted. Ingrassia approached epidemic responses as a collaboration between healthcare and government officials, and was the first known "health care professional" to propose that a system for monitoring epidemics of contagious catarrhal fevers would aid in early detection and epidemic control. Flu spread quickly from Sicily into the Kingdom of Naples on the lower part of the Italian Peninsula, moving upward along the coastline. In Urbino, Venetian court poet Bernardo Tasso, his son Torquato, and the occupants of a monastery fell sick "from hand to hand"Corradi Alfonso 5 June 1879 La Enfermità di Toquato Tasso https://books.google.com/books?id=ihzmAAAAMAAJ&q=1557%20sicilia%20influenza Memorie del Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere: Classe di Scienze Matematiche e Naturali it TIP. BERNARDONI DI C. REBESCHINI E. C. 15 331 Google Books with influenza for four to five days. Though the epidemic left the entire city of Urbino ill, most individuals recovered without complications. By the time Bernardo had traveled to northern Italy on August 3 the disease had already spread into the rest of Europe. In Lombardy there was an outbreak of "suffocating catarrh" that could quickly become fatal. The symptoms were so severe that some members of the population suspected a mass poisoning had occurred.Adelon Nicolas Philibert 1836 Grippe (Histoire) Dictionnaire de Médecine, Ou, Répertoire Général des Sciences Médicales Considérées Sous le Rapport Théorique et Pratique 34 1 321 10.3917/tf.131.0101 0250-4952 Padua began to see cases in August, with sickness lasting into September. German medical historian Justus Hecker writes that the young population of Padua had been reeling from a dual outbreak of measles and smallpox since the spring when a new illness, featuring extreme cough and headache, began to afflict the citizens in late summer. The illness was referred to as coqueluche.SCHWEICH Heinrich https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_hZAAAAcAAJ&q=1510+influenza&pg=PA53 Die Influenza. Ein historischer und ätiologischer Versuch ... Mit einer Vorrede von ... J. F. C. Hecker HECKER Justus Friedrich Carl 1836 59–60 de Switzerland was also reached by the disease in August. "Catarrh" swept through the Swiss plateaus from August to September and almost disrupted the graduate studies of Swiss physician Felix Plater,Ladurie Emmanuel Le Roy https://books.google.com/books?id=0fzqcABj4usC The Beggar and the Professor: A Sixteenth-Century Family Saga 1998-06-06 University of Chicago Press 978-0-226-47324-6 Chicago 321 en Goldhammer Arthur who was sickened by severe fits of coughing while a candidate for his doctorate. Kingdom of France thumb|left|293x293px|The courts of Paris were shut down during the 1557 flu pandemic. thumb|right|Lazare Rivière researched and described the 1557 flu in France French physician and medical historian Lazare Rivière documented an anonymous physician's descriptions of a flu outbreak occurring in the Languedoc region of France in July 1557.https://books.google.com/books?id=N6FLAAAAYAAJ&q=L%27epidemie+de+1510+mezeray&pg=PA332 Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales 1877 Asselin Paris 332 fr 2020-11-04 2021-09-09 https://web.archive.org/web/20210909172120/https://books.google.com/books?id=N6FLAAAAYAAJ&q=L%27epidemie+de+1510+mezeray&pg=PA332 live The disease, often called coqueluche by the French,Delorme Raige 1837 GRIPPE – IV. Histoire et Literature https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=V2REAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.RA3-PA259 Encyclographie des Sciences Médicales. Répertoire Général de Ces Sciences, Au XIXe Siècle Brussels, Belgium Établissement Encyclographique 13 258–259 Google Books 2020-05-28 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072421/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=V2REAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.RA3-PA259 liveBrouardel Paul https://books.google.com/books?id=-U4pAAAAYAAJ&q=Influenza+de+1557&pg=PA363 Traité de médecine et de thérapeutique Agustin Gilbert Girode Joseph 1895 B. Ballière et Fils Paris 363 fr caused a severe outbreak in Nîmes that featured a fast onset of symptoms like headaches, fevers, loss of appetite, fatigue, and intense coughing. Most of those who died from the disease did so on the fourth day, but some succumbed up to 11 days after first symptoms. Across Languedoc influenza had a high mortality rate, with up to 200 people per day dying in Toulouse at the height of the region's epidemic.Cayla Jean Mament https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=4YnsCn3PRzAC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA481 Histoire de la ville de Toulouse depuis sa fondation jusqu'à nos jours, publiée sous la direction de M. J. M. Cayla et Perrin-Paviot. Ornée de douze gravures, etc 1839 Toulouse 481 fr 2020-04-29 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072353/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=4YnsCn3PRzAC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA481 live Italian physician Francisco Vallerioli, known as François Valleriola, was a witness to the epidemic in France and described the 1557 flu's symptoms as featuring a fever, severe headache, intense coughing, shortness of breath, chills, hoarseness, and expulsion of phlegm after 7 to 14 days. French lawyer Étienne Pasquier wrote that the disease began with a severe pain in the head and a 12- to 15-hour feverDeschambre A. https://books.google.com/books?id=9eqTlTKb0EwC&q=1510+coqueluche+angleterre&pg=PA241 Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales: Cas – Cép 1873 Masson 241 fr while sufferers' noses "ran like a fountain."Nothnagel Hermann https://books.google.com/books?id=1e1LwxDU2SkC&q=Pasquier+1557+influenza&pg=PA602 Nothnagel's Encyclopedia of practical medicine. v. 10, 1910 1905 W.B. Saunders & Company Philadelphia and London 602 en Paris saw its judiciary disrupted when the Paris Law Court suspended its meetings to slow the spread of flu.Bloss Jas. R. July 1920 Influenza – Past and Present https://books.google.com/books?id=IIAxAQAAMAAJ&dq=1557+influenza+records+in+East+Asia&pg=PA288 West Virginia Medical Journal 15 287–288 Medical historian Charles-Jacques Saillant described this influenza as especially fatal to those who were treated with bleedingHopkirk Arthur F. https://books.google.com/books?id=XswvAQAAMAAJ&q=Portugal+1510+influenza&pg=PA30 Influenza: Its History, Nature, Cause, and Treatment Walter Scott Publishing Company 1914 New York 31 en and very dangerous to children.Wood T.F.C. https://books.google.com/books?id=vMfGlF2oOdQC&q=coqueluche+1510&pg=PA220 The Epidemics of the Middle Ages G. Woodfall and Von 1844 London 221–222 en Kingdoms of England and Scotland The 1557 influenza severely impacted the British Isles. British medical historian Charles Creighton cited a contemporary writer, Wriothesley, who noted in 1557 "this summer reigned in England divers strange and new sicknesses, taking men and women in their heads; as strange agues and fevers, whereof many died."Allbutt, M.D. Clifford https://books.google.com/books?id=4e1GAQAAMAAJ&q=+1557 Influenza 1907 105 en 18th Century physician Thomas Short wrote that those who succumbed to the flu "were let blood of or had unsound viscera." Flu blighted the army of Mary I of England by leaving her government unable to train sufficient reinforcements for Henry Manners, 2nd Earl of Rutland to protect Calais from an impending French assault,The Fall of Calais History Today https://www.historytoday.com/archive/fall-calais www.historytoday.com 2020-04-30 2021-06-29 https://web.archive.org/web/20210629111123/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/fall-calais live and by January 1558 the Duke of Guise had claimed the under-protectedLoades David https://books.google.com/books?id=l2_z__NsbkoC&q=%22influenza%22+at+the+battle+of+st+quentin+1557&pg=PA121 Elizabeth I: A Life 2006-08-23 A&C Black 978-1-85285-520-8 London, UK 121 en city in the name of France. Influenza significantly contributed to England's unusually high death rates for 1557–58:Bucholz Robert https://books.google.com/books?id=epe4DwAAQBAJ&q=England+influenza+of+1558&pg=PA121 Early Modern England 1485–1714: A Narrative History Key Newton 2019-12-31 John Wiley & Sons 978-1-118-53222-5 Hoboken, New Jersey 121 en Data compiled on over 100 parishes in England found that the mortality rates increased by up to 60% in some areas during the flu epidemic,Rappaport Steve https://books.google.com/books?id=A_odA1alLoYC&q=1557+influenza&pg=PA71 Worlds Within Worlds: Structures of Life in Sixteenth-Century London 2002-04-04 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89221-6 71 en even though diseases like true plague were not heavily present in England at the time. Dr. Short found that the number of burials for market towns was much higher than christenings from 1557 to 1562. For example, the annual number of burials in Tonbridge increased from 33 on average in 1556 to 61 in 1557, 105 in 1558, and 94 in 1559.Zell Michael https://books.google.com/books?id=p9_T08tLq8wC&q=King+Cardinal+death+from+influenza+1557&pg=PA232 Early Modern Kent, 1540–1640 2000 Boydell & Brewer 978-0-85115-585-2 Woodbridge, Suffolk 232 en Before the flu epidemic, England had suffered from a poor harvest and widespread famineArman Steve https://books.google.com/books?id=WkfONbcg-_AC&q=flu+of+1557&pg=PA85 Reformation and Rebellion 1485-1750 Bird Simon Wilkinson Malcolm 2002 Heinemann 978-0-435-32303-5 Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford 85 en that medical historian Thomas Short believed made the epidemic more deadly.Thompson Theophilus https://books.google.com/books?id=INc0AQAAMAAJ&dq=1510+epidemic+Rome&pg=PA10 Annals of Influenza Or Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in Great Britain from 1510 to 1837 1852 Sydenham Society 8 en thumb|268x268px|Flu was widespread in London when Mary I of England died.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eaMix9x4HE Edward and Mary: The Unknown Tudors Starky David 2002 Youtube 46:20-46:25 2020-04-17 2020-06-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20200618153830/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eaMix9x4HE live8 Things You Might Not Know about Mary I https://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-might-not-know-about-mary-i Nix Elizabeth HISTORY en 2020-05-30 2021-08-18 https://web.archive.org/web/20210818183019/https://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-might-not-know-about-mary-i live|alt=|left Influenza returned in 1558. Contemporary historian John Stow wrote that during "winter the quarterne agues continued in like manner" to 1557's epidemic.Stow John https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=X1FoAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA501 A Summarie of the Chronicles of England, from the first coming of Brute into this land, unto this present yeare of Christ 1575 ... Corrected and enlarged, etc. B.L. 1575 Richard Cottle and Henry Binneman 501 en 2021-01-12 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072352/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=X1FoAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA501 live On 6 September 1558 the Governor of the Isle of Wight, Lord St. John, wrote in a despatch to Mary I of England about a highly-contagious illness afflicting more than half the people of Southampton, the Isle of Wight, and Portsmouth (places where Lord St. John had stationed troops). A second despatch from 11 P.M. of 6 October indicated "from the mayor of Dover that there is no plague there, but the people that daily die are those that come out of the ships, and such poor people as come out of Calais, of the new sickness." One of the commissioners for the surrender of Calais found Sir William Pickering, former knight-marshal to King Henry VIII, "very sore of this new burning ague. He has had four sore fits, and is brought very low, and in danger of his life if they continue as they have done." Influenza began to move north through England, felling numerous farmers and leaving large quantities of grain unharvestedDOBYNS HENRY F. An Outline of Andean Epidemic History to 1720 1963 Bulletin of the History of Medicine 37 6 493–515 44446986 14074186 0007-5140 before it reached London around mid-late October. Queen Mary and Archbishop of Canterbury Reginald Pole, who had both been in poor health before flu broke out in London, likely died of influenza within 12 hours of each other on 17 November 1558.https://books.google.com/books?id=ookeXN08uo4C&q=l'epidemie+de+1557+la+suisse&pg=PA863 Mémorial de Chronologie, d'Histoire Industrielle, d'Èconomie Politique, de Biographie, etc 1830 Chez Verdière, Libraire Paris 863 fr Two of Mary's physicians died as well. Ultimately around 8000 other Londoners likely died of influenza during the epidemic, including many elders and parish priests. thumb|Flu was being called the "newe acquaintance" when the Queen of Scotland contracted it in 1562.|alt= New waves of "agues" and fevers were recorded in England into 1559. These repeated outbreaks proved unusually deadly for populations already suffering from extensive rains and poor harvests. From 1557 to 1559 the nation's population contracted by 2%.Brady Thomas Allan https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&q=1557+influenza&pg=PA403 Structures and Assertions Oberman Heiko Augustinus Tracy James D. James Tracy (historian) 1993-12-31 BRILL 978-90-04-09760-5 Leiden, The Netherlands 403 en The sheer numbers of people dying from epidemics and famine in England caused economic inflation to flatten out.Bray R. S. https://books.google.com/books?id=cRHbDwAAQBAJ Armies of Pestilence: The Impact of Disease on History 2004-06-15 ISD LLC 978-0-7188-4816-3 Cambridge, England 196 en In the late 1550s the English language had not yet developed a proper name for the flu, despite previous epidemics. Thus 1557's epidemic was either described as a "plague" (like many epidemics with notable mortality), "ague" (most generally) or "new disease" in England. "The sweat" was one name used to describe the usually deadly, flu-like fevers and "agues" plaguing the English countryside from 1557 to 1558, despite no reliable records of sweating sickness after 1551. Doctor John Jones, a prominent 16th Century London physician, refers in his book Dyall of Agues to a "great sweat" during the reign of Mary I of England. After the 1557 pandemic English nicknames for the flu began to appear in letters, like "the new disease" in England and "the newe acquaintance" in Scotland. When the entire royal court of Mary, Queen of Scots was struck down with influenza in Edinburgh in November 1562, Lord Randolph described the outbreak as "a new disease, that is common in this town, called here 'the newe acquaintance,' which passed also through her whole court, neigh sparing lord, lady, nor damoysell, not so much as either French or English. It is a pain in their heads that have it, and a soreness in their stomachs, with a great cough, that remaineth with some longer with other short time, as it findeth apt bodies for the nature of the disease...There was not an appearance of danger, nor manie that died of the disease, except some old folks."Coburn H. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=iRA5AQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA349 Letters of Mary, Queen of Scots: Now First Published from the Originals, Collected from Various Sources, Private as Well as Public, with an Historical Introduction and Notes 1843 H. Colburn 349 en 2020-05-21 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072424/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=iRA5AQAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA349 live Mary Stuart herself spent six days sick in her bedchambers. Habsburg Netherlands left|thumb|265x265px|Rembert Dodoens attributed the outbreaks in Flanders to the weather. Habsburg Netherlands was also heavily impacted by the flu in October. Dutch historian Petrus Forestus described an outbreak in Alkmaar where 2000 fell sick with flu and 200 perished in a span of three weeks.Colin Léon https://books.google.com/books?id=lP7o8psNrboC&q=l'epidemie+1557+allemagne&pg=PA496 Traité des maladies épidémiques: origine, évolution, prophylaxie 1879 B. Ballière et Fills Paris 496 fr Forestus himself became sick with the flu and related that it "...began with a slight fever like a common catarrh, and showed its great malignancy only by degrees. Sudden fits of suffocation then came on, and the pain of the chest was so distressing that patients imagined they must die in the paroxysm. The complaint was increased still by a tight, convulsive cough. Death did not take place till the 9th or 14th day."Hillier, M.D Thomas January 29, 1859 On Diphterite https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=phdXJAM57uUC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA107 The Medical Times and Gazette, A Journal of Medical Science, Literature, Criticism, and News London 18 107 May 28, 2020 September 11, 2021 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072409/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=phdXJAM57uUC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA107 live He further observed that the flu was very dangerous to pregnant women, killing at least eight such citizens in Alkmaar who contracted it. Influenza's symptoms came on suddenly and attacked thousands of the city's residents at the same time.https://books.google.com/books?id=wWy2ZRmVmY8C&q=1557+coqueluche&pg=PA12 Twentieth century practice 1898 Sampson Low, Marston New York 13 en Hunger likely contributed to a higher death toll, as the authorities had been struggling to provide food to the needy amid a severe bread shortage during the summer.Torfs Louis https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=OB0s_ZzYnLoC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA188 Fastes des calamités publiques survenues dans les Pays-Bas et particulièrement en Belgique depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours: Épidémies; famines; inondations 1859 Librairie de P. Lenthielleux Paris 188 fr 2020-05-31 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072356/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=OB0s_ZzYnLoC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA188 live Attempting to explain the epidemic of fevers and respiratory illness affecting the Low Countries, Flemish physician Rembert Dodoens suggested that the mass outbreaks of illness were caused by a dry, hot summer following a very cold winter. Spain and Portugal thumb|516x516px|Influenza spread out from Madrid to the entire Spanish Empire. Spain was widely and severely impacted by influenza, which chroniclers recognized as a highly contagious catarrhal fever.https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=hWsBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA98 The Dublin Journal of Medical Science 1880 Fannin & Company Dublin 98 en 2020-06-12 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072407/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=hWsBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA98 livehttps://books.google.com/books?id=nt4mMN1lGV0C&q=1557+influenza&pg=PA159 British Medical Journal 1880 British Medical Association Hart Ernest London 159 en Influenza likely arrived in Spain around July, with the first cases being reported near Madrid in August.1940 Influenza in America During the 16th Century Bulletin of the History of Medicine 8 297 British medical historian Thomas Short wrote that "At Mantua Carpentaria, three miles outside of Madrid, the first cases were reported...There it began with a roughness of the jaws, small cough, then a strong fever with a pain in the head, back, and legs. Some felt as though they were corded over the breast, with a weight at the stomach, all which continued to the third day at the furthest. Then the fever went off, with a sweat of bleeding at the nose. In some few, it turned to a pleurisy of fatal peripneumony."Vaughan, M.D. Warren T. July 1921 Influenza – An Epidemiologic Study https://books.google.com/books?id=Lhc6AQAAMAAJ&q=influenza+of+1557+pleurisy&pg=PA19 The American Journal of Hygiene 1 19 Bloodletting greatly increased the risk of mortality, and it was observed in Mantua Carpentaria that "2000 were let blood of and all died."Allbutt, M.D. Clifford https://books.google.com/books?id=4e1GAQAAMAAJ&q=in%20the%20small%20town%202000%20were%20let%20blood%20of%20and%20all%20died. Influenza 1907 128 en The flu then entered Spain's capital city, where it rapidly spread to all parts of the Spanish mainland.December 2020 Cases expanded exponentially as merchants, pilgrims, and other travelers leaving Madrid transported the virus to cities and towns across the country. According to King Phillip II's doctor Luis de Mercado, "All the population was attacked the same day, and the same time of day. It was catarrh, marked by fever of the double tertian type, with such pernicious symptoms that many died."https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=wKlXAAAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA52 The Cincinnati Lancet-clinic 1890 J.C. Culbertson Culbertson, M.D. J. C. Cincinnati 52 en 2020-03-25 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072423/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=wKlXAAAAMAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA52 live The season's poor harvests and hunger in the Spanish population,Kamen Henry https://books.google.com/books?id=akIsAwAAQBAJ&q=Bubonic+plague+1557-58+spain&pg=PA113 Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict 2014-03-26 Routledge 978-1-317-75500-5 113 en as well as negligent medical care, likely contributed to the severity of the influenza pandemic in Spain. Flu symptoms could be so intense that the region's physicians often distinguished it from other contagious, seasonal pneumonias that spread from East Europe.Webster Noah https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=qmrynckrEKYC&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA421 A Brief History of Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases: With the Principal Phenomena of the Physical World, which Precede and Accompany Them, and Observations Deduced from the Facts Stated ... 1800 G.G. and J. Robinson, Paternoster-Row London 421 en 2020-04-26 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072355/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=qmrynckrEKYC&printsec=frontcover&pg=GBS.PA421 live Sixteenth century Spaniards frequently referred to any mass outbreak of deadly disease generically as a pestilencia,Christian William A. https://books.google.com/books?id=txgTnvee5OsC&q=catarro+1557&pg=PA27 Local Religion in Sixteenth-century Spain Princeton University Press 1981 978-0-691-00827-1 Princeton, New Jersey 27 en and "plagues" are recognized as occurring in ValenciaLas epidemias de Valencia y la Virgen de los Desamparados https://www.elperiodicodeaqui.com/epda-noticias/las-epidemias-de-valencia-y-la-virgen-de-los-desamparados-/211458 El Periódico de Aquí es 2020-05-31 2020-05-24 https://web.archive.org/web/20200524150625/https://www.elperiodicodeaqui.com/epda-noticias/las-epidemias-de-valencia-y-la-virgen-de-los-desamparados-/211458 live and GranadaVincent Bernard 1969 Les pestes dans le royaume de Grenade aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1969_num_24_6_422184 Annales 24 6 1511–1513 10.3406/ahess.1969.422184 162228482 2020-05-31 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072420/https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1969_num_24_6_422184 live during the years 1557–59, despite pathological records of true plague (like descriptions of buboes) occurring in the area at the time being scant. Influenza hit the Kingdom of Portugal at the same time as it spread throughout Spain, with an impact that spread across the Atlantic Ocean. The kingdom had just suffered food shortages due to 1556–57's poor harvest,Abreu-Ferreira Darlene https://books.google.com/books?id=BdO1CwAAQBAJ&q=1557+influenza+portugal&pg=PA36 Women, Crime, and Forgiveness in Early Modern Portugal 2016-03-09 Routledge 978-1-134-77758-7 Abingdon 36 en which would have exacerbated the effects of the flu on hungry patients. A violent storm had just hit Portugal and severely damaged the Palace of Enxobregas, and in following with attributing outbreaks of influenza to the weather Portuguese historians like Ignácio Barbosa-Machado attributed the epidemic in the kingdom to the storm with little opposition. Barbosa-Machado referred to 1557 as the "anno de catarro."https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=I-Q204a5D3sC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA302 Annaes das sciencias e lettras 1857 Typographia da Academia Lisbon 302 pt-BR 2020-06-07 2021-09-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20210911072402/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=I-Q204a5D3sC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA302 live The Americas thumb|Spanish sailors brought influenza to Central America.|alt=|left There are records of the New World eventually being reached by the flu in 1557, brought to the Spanish and Portuguese Empires by sailors from Europe. Influenza arrived in Central America in 1557,University Harvard https://books.google.com/books?id=_w0kAPYQ5xMC&q=Europe+1557+influenza+plague+measles+smallpox&pg=PA213 The Cambridge History of Latin America 1984-12-06 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-23223-4 Cambridge, Massachusetts 213 en likely aboard Spanish ships sailing to New Spain. During that year there were epidemics of flu recorded in the south Atlantic states, Gulf area, and Southwest.Barrett Carole A. https://books.google.com/books?id=QYAZAQAAIAAJ&q=1559+influenza American Indian History: Aboriginal action plan-Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe 2003 Salem Press 978-1-58765-068-0 127 en The Native American Cherokee appear to have been affected during this wave,Thornton Russell https://books.google.com/books?id=3Cgr4fPfAZQC&q=influenza+of+1559&pg=PA18 The Cherokees: A Population History 1990 U of Nebraska Press 978-0-8032-9410-3 University of Nebraska at Lincoln 18 en and it may have spread along newly established trade routes between Spanish colonies in the New World. thumb|425x425px|Portuguese sailors brought influenza to the east coast of Brazil. The flu also reached South America. Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns described a 1557 epidemic of influenza in Ecuador in which European and Native populations were both left sick with severe coughing.Pease Franklin https://books.google.com/books?id=Bq2DZpHvPkkC&q=La+gripe+espa%C3%B1a+1557&pg=PA311 Historia general de América Latina: El primer contacto y la formación de nuevas sociedades Damas 1999 UNESCO 978-92-3-303151-7 Paris, France 311 es In Colonial Brazil, Portuguese missionaries did not take breaks from religious activities when they became sick. Missionaries like the Society of Jesus in Brazil founder Manuel da Nóbrega continued to preach, host mass, and baptize converts in the New World even when symptomatic with contagious illnesses like influenza.Metcalf Alida C. https://books.google.com/books?id=hql01eFrdjUC&q=Plague&pg=PA149 Go-betweens and the Colonization of Brazil: 1500–1600 2013-05-01 University of Texas Press 978-0-292-74860-6 149–150 en As a result, flu would have quickly spread through Portuguese colonies due to mandatory church attendance. In 1559 the flu struck colonial Brazil with a wave of illness recorded along the coastal state of Bahia:Cook Noble David Noble David Cook https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C&q=1559+fevers&pg=PA114 Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 1998-02-13 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-62730-6 Cambridge, UK 112–114 en That February, the region of Espírito Santo was struck by an outbreak of lung infections, dysentery, and "fevers that they say immediately attacked the hearts, and which quickly struck them down." Populations of natives attempted to flee the infection afflicting their communities, spreading influenza northward. European missionaries suspected such severe epidemics among the native populations to be a form of divine punishment, and referred to the outbreaks of pleurisy and dysentery among the natives in Bahia to be "the sword of God's wrath." Missionaries like Francisco Pires took some pity on the sick children of natives, whom they often regarded as innocent, and frequently baptized them during epidemics in the belief they'd "saved" their souls. Baptism rates in native communities were deeply connected with outbreaks of disease, and missionary policies of conducting religious activities while sick likely helped spread the flu. Africa thumb|296x296px|The Ottoman army failed to conquer Medri Bahri's capitol, Debarwa, after their forces were wiped out by flu in 1559. Influenza attacked Africa through the Ottoman Empire, which by 1557 was expanding its territories in the northern and eastern parts of the continent. Egypt, which had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire around 40 years prior, became an access point for influenza to travel south through the Red Sea along shipping routes. The pandemic's most memorable effects on the Ottoman army in Africa are recorded as part of the 1559 wave.December 2020 Abyssinian Empire and Habesh Eyalet The Kingdom of Portugal had supported the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) Empire in their war against the Ottoman expansion of the Habesh Eyalet and sent aid to their emperor, including a team with Andrés de Oviedo in 1557 who recorded the events.Whiteway R. S. https://books.google.com/books?id=EggkDwAAQBAJ&q=OViedo+abysinnians+1557&pg=PT51 The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543, as narrated by Castanhoso: With Some Contemporary Letters, the Short Account of Bermudez, and Certain Extracts from Correa 2017-05-15 Taylor & Francis 978-1-317-01974-9 en In 1559 the Ottoman Empire struggled with a severe wave of influenza: After the deaths of Emperor Gelawdewos and most of the Portuguese attaché in battle, the flu killed thousands of the Ottoman army's troops occupying the port city of Massawa.Welch Sidney R. https://books.google.com/books?id=wxdXAAAAMAAJ&q=ravages+of+a+severe+epidemic+of+influenza,+but+not+before+Claudius South Africa Under John III, 1521–1557 1949 Juta 244 en Massawa was claimed by the Ottomans from Medri Bahri during their conquest of Habesh in 1557, but the pandemic's 1559 wave challenged their army's hold onto territory around the city after flu cut down a large number of the Ottoman forces. Because of the epidemic Ottoman soldiers were soon recalled to the ports, even though the emperor had been slain, and shortly afterwards Gelawdewos's brother Menas ascended to the Abyssinian throne and converted from Islam to Christianity. Medicine and treatments left|thumb|168x168px|Mid-16th century medicine was ineffective for flu. Most physicians of the time subscribed to the theory of humorism, and believed the cosmos or climate directly affected the health of entire communities. Physicians treating the flu often used treatments called coctions to remove excess humors they believed to be causing illness. Dr. Thomas Short described treatments for the 1557 influenza as having included gargling "rose water, quinces, mulberries, and sealed earth." "Gentle bleeding" was used on the first day of the infection only,F. Flick, M.D. Lawrence 1892 The Treatment of Epidemic Influenza by Rest and Stimulants https://books.google.com/books?id=FQqgAAAAMAAJ Proceedings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society 13 40 Google Books as frequently used medical techniques like bloodletting and purgation were often fatal for influenza. In Urbino, "diet and good governance" were recognized as common ways sufferers managed their illness. Identification as influenza The 1557 pandemic's nature as a worldwide, highly-contagious respiratory disease with fast onset of flu-like symptoms has led many physicians, from medical historians like Charles Creighton to modern epidemiologists, to consider the causative disease as influenza. "Well documented descriptions from medical observers"Morens David M North Michael Taubenberger Jeffery K 2010-12-04 Eyewitness accounts of the 1510 influenza pandemic in Europe Lancet 376 9756 1894–1895 10.1016/s0140-6736(10)62204-0 0140-6736 3180818 21155080 who witnessed the effects of the pandemic as it spread through populations have been reviewed by numerous medical historians in the centuries since. Contemporary physicians to the 1557 flu, like Ingrassia, Valleriola, Dodoens, and Mercado, described symptoms like severe coughing, fever, myalgia, and pneumonia that all occurred within a short period of time and led to death in days if a case was to be fatal. Infections became so widespread in countries that influences like the weather, stars, and mass poisoning were blamed by observers for the outbreaks, a reoccurring pattern in influenza epidemics that has contributed to the disease's name. Prior to greater research being conducted into influenza in the 19th century, some medical historians considered the descriptions of epidemic "angina" from 1557 to be scarlet fever, whooping cough, and diphtheria. But the most striking features of scarlet fever and diphtheria, like rashes or pseudomembranes, remain unmentioned by any of the 1557 pandemic's observers and the first recognized whooping cough epidemic is a localized outbreak in Paris from 1578.https://books.google.com/books?id=lB5KAQAAMAAJ&q=whooping+cough+epidemics&pg=PA3 Whooping Cough: Essential Facts Concerning Whooping Cough, Its Prevention and Treatment with Appropriate Vaccines 1920 Eli Lilly & Company Indianapolis, Indiana 3 en These illnesses can resemble the flu in their early stages but pandemic influenza is distinguished by its fast-moving, unrestricted epidemics of severe respiratory disease affecting all ages with widespread infections and mortalities.December 2020 References Category:1550s disasters Category:1557 in health Category:16th-century disease outbreaks Category:Influenza pandemics Category:16th-century epidemics