16th-century Western domes

Aspect of architectural history ly September 2022 Domes built in the 16th century by the Western world, broadly defined, relied primarily on empirical techniques and oral traditions rather than the architectural treatises of the time. The use of lantern towers, or timburios, which hid dome profiles on the exterior declined in Italy as the use of windowed drums beneath domes increased, which introduced new structural difficulties. Multi-story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting smaller cupolas or crowns were used at the top of important 16th-century spires, beginning in the Netherlands. In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Italian dome had spread north and this structure gradually adopted the bulbous cupola from the Netherlands. The fully developed onion dome was prominent in Prague by the middle of the sixteenth century and appeared widely on royal residences. Russian architecture strongly influenced the many bulbous domes of the wooden churches of Bohemia and Silesia. Bulbous domes in Bavarian rural architecture less resemble Dutch models than Russian ones, due to influence through Bohemia and Silesia. The Gothic ribbed vault was displaced with a combination of dome and barrel vaults in the Renaissance style throughout the 16th century, beginning with the areas of Italy within Florence's sphere of influence and with Bramante's 1505–6 projects for a wholly new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The spread of domes in this style outside of Italy began with central Europe, although there was often a stylistic delay of a century or two. Use of the oval dome spread quickly through Italy, Spain, France, and central Europe and would become characteristic of Counter-Reformation architecture in the Baroque style. A more somber style was implemented following the reforms of the Council of Trent. The extradosed domes of El Escorial became a model for subsequent Spanish domes. Only a few examples of domed churches from the 16th century survive from the Spanish colonization of Mexico. Surviving examples are typically on a Latin cross plan with a brick dome on a drum at the crossing. Early domes were commonly hemispherical and low, springing from the level of the roofline, rather than using an intervening drum. Developments Counter-Reformation Baroque architecture left|thumb|Domes of Venice, with San Giorgio Maggiore at front A combination of barrel vaults, pendentives, drum, and dome developed as the characteristic structural forms of large Renaissance churches following a period of innovation in the later fifteenth century.Betts 1993 5 Florence was the first Italian city to develop the new style, followed by Rome, and then Venice.Nuttgens 1997 181 Domes in the Renaissance style in Florence are mostly from the early period, in the fifteenth century. Cities within Florence's zone of influence, such as Genoa, Milan, and Turin, mainly produced examples later, from the sixteenth century on.Melaragno 1991 57-58 The construction of domes in the sixteenth century relied primarily on empirical techniques and oral traditions rather than the architectural treatises of the times, which avoided practical details. This was adequate for domes up to medium size, with diameters in the range of 12 to 20 meters. Materials were considered homogeneous and rigid, with compression taken into account and elasticity ignored. The weight of materials and the size of the dome were the key references. Lateral tensions in a dome were counteracted with horizontal rings of iron, stone, or wood incorporated into the structure.Fusco Villanni 2003 580–581 Other techniques used to reduce lateral thrust were to add a buttress at the base, a counterweight above the abutment, or to give the vault a steeper profile. Architects followed authoritative opinions, especially those of ancient authors, and the evidence from ancient and contemporary buildings.Bellini 2017 3-4 The structural behavior of previous domed buildings acted as full-scale models to inform new ones and small scale models of new projects were also relied upon.Fernández Hernández-Ros 1989 Dome design prior to the seventeenth century relied upon geometrical and proportional construction rules established by the experiences of prior centuries. Principles based on material strengths, the theory of elasticity, and limit analysis had not yet been formulated.Gusella Belardi Bianconi Armeni 2012 3 Traditional geometric rules of proportion for domes were applied by master builders regardless of size, but helped new domes be built in forms known to be safe.Fernández Hernández-Ros 1989 Sizing of domes was determined geometrically through ratios of the diameter to other aspects, such as thickness, lantern size, and drum size, until it was replaced by analytical calculations at the end of the seventeenth century.Capone Lanzara 2019 220 Onion-shaped domes appeared widely on royal residences in the middle of the sixteenth century. In addition to those on the eastern part of Prague Castle, royal residences in Madrid, London, Vienna, and Kraków had them, always as part of Italian classical forms.Bažant 2008 35 thumb|200x200px|Domes of the Saint Anthony of Padua Basilica, known locally as "il Santo" The first rotating observatory dome was built in the sixteenth century, in Kassel.Randl 2008 10 thumb|200x200px|Domes of the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua Toward the end of the sixteenth century, transepts with domes were popular in several Italian states and were featured in prominent churches such as the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua (begun in 1532), Mantua Cathedral (added after 1540), Church of the Gesù in Rome (1568–1580), and San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice (begun in 1566).Kurzej 2015 175–176 The domes of the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua may have been inspired by those of il Santo.Krinsky 1971 217 Between the late sixteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries, the use of iron chains was considered critical in achieving structural equilibrium for dome construction in the area around Rome, with rare exceptions. Other contemporary architects, such as those in Florence, argued that dome stability should instead be ensured by the use of correct proportions and good construction.Gallozzi 2012 6-7 thumb|right|Book Five of Sebastiano Serlio's treatise In the sixteenth century, many Renaissance and Baroque elliptical and oval plan domes were built over rectangular naves, using brick in Italy and stone in Spain. Later German oval domes in the Rococo style used different combinations of geometry. Elliptical dome traces were published by Durero (1525), Serlio (1545), and De L'Orme (1561) along with practical methods of achieving the shape using circular arcs, the technique used from the time of the ancient Romans.Escrig Cobreros Valcarcel 1997 355-357 The publication of Sebastiano Serlio's treatise, one of the most popular architectural treatises ever published, was responsible for the spread of the oval in late Renaissance and Baroque architecture. Book I (1545), on geometry, included techniques to create ovals, and Book V (1547), on architecture, included a design for an oval church.Huerta 2007 230–231 Churches with oval plans begin to be built in the middle of the sixteenth century. Churches with oval domes allowed for a synthesis of the two fundamental church types, longitudinal and central plan, and would become characteristic of Baroque architecture and the Counter-Reformation.Bagliani 2009 Alonso de Vandelvira es Alonso de Vandelvira published a description of the geometry of oval domes around 1580 with orthogonal projections of meridian and parallel rib curves. Oval domes often incorporated both elliptical and oval or semicircular curves and this ambiguity is reflected in the architectural literature. Builders relied on graphical or empirical solutions to such geometric problems.Duvernoy 2015 448-450 Papal States Papal States thumb|right|The Tempietto in Rome The Tempietto in Rome, a small domed building modelled on the Temple of Vesta, was built in 1502 by Bramante in the cloister of San Pietro in Montorio to commemorate the site of St. Peter's martyrdom. It has inspired numerous copies and adaptations since, including Radcliffe Camera, the mausoleum at Castle Howard, and the domes of St. Peter's Basilica, St Paul's Cathedral, the Panthéon, and the U.S. Capitol.Nuttgens 1997 183 Bramante's 1505–6 projects for a wholly new St. Peter's Basilica mark the beginning of the displacement of the Gothic ribbed vault with the combination of dome and barrel vault, which proceeded throughout the sixteenth century.Betts 1993 5-7 Bramante's studies for new church designs for St. Peter's coincided with Leonardo da Vinci's studies of centrally planned churches while they were both at the court of Ludovico Sforza in Milan and they may have collaborated. Their studies may have influenced many of the centrally planned churches built in the first half of the sixteenth century, such as the church of Santa Maria della Consolazione (started around 1508) and the church of the Madonna di San Biagio at Montepulciano (1518–1545).Duvernoy 2015 426-427 Bramante's cross-domed design for the church of St. Celso in Rome served as a model for the Church of St. Maria della Fortezze in Viterbo, begun in 1514.Günther 1995 48 Although Bramante designed a low dome like that of the Pantheon for the church of Santa Maria della Consolazione in Todi, a building ordered by the ruling Atti family to mark the site of a 1508 miracle, the design changed in 1587 to a dome and drum on pendentives.Castex 2008 166 Raphael's dome in the Chigi Chapel (1516) at the basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo use stucco relief moldings to frame eight picture panels surrounding a central circular image. The eight panels depict angels and figures representing the planets. The central panel depicts an illusionistic Pantocrator mosaic, with a perspective intended to be seen from the entrance arch.Shearman 1992 186- In 1520, Antonio da Correggio painted the oval crossing dome of San Giovanni Evangelista in Parma, using an illusionistic style that depicts a central Christ, but in a scene of the second coming, rather than as Pantocrator. The low lighting required the painting to use a "fresco technique with a far stronger tonal range than is normal for the medium."Shearman 1992 181-184 In 1526 he painted the octagonal crossing dome of Parma Cathedral with an illusionistic depiction of the assumption of Mary, with plaster filling in the angles of the octagonal vault to create a smooth surface. The image is meant to be viewed at or near the base of the steps to the chancel.Shearman 1992 186-188 The church of Santa Maria di Loreto in Rome (1507-1585) has a dome in two shells. The inner shell was built by Antonio Sangallo with the rest of the church, but the outer shell was added later by Giacomo del Duca and finished in 1577. A false lantern was added above this second shell in 1585.Rivoira 1925 291-293 The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Mongiovino it Santuario della Madonna di Mongiovino (begun 1513) by Rocco da Vicenza it Rocco di Tommaso da Vicenza was a cross-domed church that followed the Venetian model.Günther 1995 49 Alessio Tramello helped develop a Lombard variant of the cross-domed plan in which the cross arms extend past the otherwise square plan with his church of Santa Maria di Campagna in Piacenza (1522–1528).Günther 1995 48 The first church with an oval dome in the Renaissance period was the Sant'Andrea in Via Flaminia, built from 1550 to 1554 by Vignola. Use of the oval dome subsequently spread quickly through Italy, Spain, France, and central Europe.Huerta 2007 232 The church of Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri (c. 1568–1575), designed by Vignola and completed by his son Giacinto Barozzi, was the first church to have an oval dome over an oval plan.Francia 1982 152 Many Italian examples of oval domes have semi-circular cross sections, which allowed for easier construction using semi-circular transverse centering. Vignola's oval plan church of Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri was the first to be built within Rome, and was designed in 1572 with seven windows between the eight ribs in its oval dome. The windows introduced structural complications that Vignola had avoided in his first oval dome over the rectangular plan church of Sant'Andrea in Via Flaminia, but the restrictions of the site necessitated light from above. The oval plan church of San Giacomo degli Incurabili was started in 1592 by a student of Vignola's, Francesco Capriani, and finished by Carlo Maderno. It also has ribs between the six windows in its dome, but they are concealed on the interior. The design of this church would inspire others over the next two centuries, aided by the building activity of the many new religious orders founded between 1524 and 1621.Duvernoy 2015 427, 437-438, 448, 450, and 454 St. Peter's Basilica St. Peter's Basilica#Dome: successive and final designs thumb|left|St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City Bramante's initial design for the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica was a Greek cross plan with a large central hemispherical dome and four smaller domes around it in a quincunx pattern. Work began in 1506 and continued under a succession of builders over the next 120 years.Nuttgens 1997 184 Bramante's project for St. Peter's marks the beginning of the displacement of the Gothic ribbed vault with the combination of dome and barrel vault.Betts 1993 5 Although basilicas with domed crossings were common in Italy at this time, they were not common in the city of Rome, which followed the Constantinian basilica model.Günther 1995 43 Bramante is said to have likened his design to placing the Pantheon on top of the Basilica of Constantine,Weber 1987 291 although this appears to be apocryphal.Choate 1996 21 Proposed inspirations for Bramante's plan have ranged from some sketches of Leonardo da Vinci to the Byzantine quincunx church and the dome of Milan's Basilica of San Lorenzo.Betts 1993 21–23 Bramante sketched San Lorenzo during his time as court architect in Milan and his design for St. Peters includes elements from San Lorenzo, such as the apse structure, central dome modeled on the Pantheon, and corner towers.Günther 1995 63 The triangular sections of the piers of the crossing dome imitate those supporting the dome of Florence Cathedral.Günther 1995 44 He expanded the crossing bay beneath the dome into an octagonal shape.Günther 1995 43 The four massive central piers and the arches linking them were completed by 1512, but cracking in the arches was detected between 1514 and 1534, possibly due to settling. The two eastern piers rest on solid marl and clay, while the other two rest upon remains of earlier Roman construction.Como 2013 241, 242 That the piers and arches were left to stand with incomplete buttressing while construction stopped for over 30 years was also a factor.Betts 1993 25 The plan for St. Peters was a model for Baldassare Peruzzi when planning Carpi Cathedral (begun 1515).Günther 1995 48 Michelangelo inherited the project to design the dome of St. Peter's basilica in 1546. It had previously been in the hands of Bramante (with Giuliano da Sangallo and Fra Giovanni Giocondo) until 1514, Raphael Sanzio (assisted by Giuliano da Sangallo and Fra Giovanni Giocondo) until 1520, and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (with Baldassare Peruzzi), whose work was disrupted by the sack of Rome in 1527.Melaragno 1991 63 The dome design had been altered by Giuliano da Sangallo from being hemispherical to being 9 meters taller, segmental, and ribbed, and he had strengthened the piers and completed building the pendentives. Michelangelo redesigned the dome to have two shells, a mostly brick internal structure, and three iron chains to resist outward pressure.Nuttgens 1997 184, 185 His dome was a lower, hemispherical design.Melaragno 1991 63 He further strengthened the piers by eliminating niches in them and the internal spiral staircase.Como 2013 243 Michelangelo obtained a decree from Pope Julius III that threatened an interdiction against anyone who altered his design, completed construction of the base for the drum by May 1558, and spent November 1558 to December 1561 creating a detailed wooden model. Construction of the drum was completed a few months after he died in 1564. Sixteen pairs of columns project out between sixteen windows in the drum to act as buttresses, and are aligned with the sixteen ribs of the dome and the paired columns of the lantern.Francia 1982 64–67 The drum and buttresses were built of stone with rubble infill and four internal spiral staircases were included.Mainstone 2003 4 An artist and sculptor, rather than an engineer, Michelangelo did not create full engineering plans for the dome and his model lacked construction details.Melaragno 1991 64 The dome of St. Peter's Basilica was later built by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana.Nuttgens 1997 184 Pope Sixtus V appointed Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana in 1588 to begin construction of the dome to Michelangelo's model. They made modifications to his design estimated to have reduced the tensile stresses in the dome by 40%, including thinning the two shells near the top, reducing the thickness and exterior projection of the ribs, raising the springing line by 4.8 meters, and changing the shape of the dome.Melaragno 1991 63-64 Giacomo della Porta insisted on a vertically elliptical profile for the dome of St. Peter's Basilica, for structural reasons, and construction began in June 1588.Francia 1982 67 Unlike the dome of Florence Cathedral, centring was used during construction. The dome was built with brick and two wrought iron eyebar chains were incorporated into the lower part of it during construction.Mainstone 2003 4 The dome was completed up to the base of the lantern in May 1590, a few months before the death of Pope Sixtus V. The lantern and lead covering for the dome were completed later, with the brass orb and cross being raised in 1592.Francia 1982 67 The lantern is 17 meters high and the dome is 136.57 meters from the base to the top of the cross.vaticanstate 2014 The ogival dome was built with 16 ribs and an inner diameter of 42.7 meters. It begins above the drum and attico (the decorative strip above the drum), which are about 18 meters tall.Como 2013 241, 243 The two brick shells of the dome are each about 1.19 meters thick at the base. Because the shells separate from each other as they rise, the dome is 2.7 meters thick overall. The sixteen ribs connect the two shells together and are made of stone.Melaragno 1991 64 thumb|right|St. Peter's nave with aisle domes Carlo Maderno's extended nave for St. Peter's Basilica, built between 1609 and 1614, included bays covered by oval domes with lanterns.Millon 2005 106 Cracks in the crossing dome were noticed as early as 1603, when the mosaics covering the dome interior were completed, and additional cracks were recorded after 1631 and in 1742, demonstrating progression.Niglio 2012 8-9 A 1730 earthquake had spurred closer monitoring of the cracks and the responsible architect, Luigi Vanvitelli, recommended strengthening measures in his 1742 report.Mainstone 2003 4 Pope Benedict XIV commissioned an independent report from three leading mathematicians from the University of Rome (François Jacquier, Thomas Le Seur fr Thomas Leseur, and Roger Joseph Boscovich), who reported in January 1743 with recommendations to add chains at the base and cornice of the drum, at the springing level of the dome, mid-way up the dome, and at the base of the lantern.Mainstone 2003 7, 11 The mathematicians also recommended adding pedestals on top of the drum buttresses.Schlimme 2006 2858 Benedict published the report and commissioned additional reviews, including by Giovanni Poleni of the University of Padua, who used physical models to test the forces at work and ultimately recommended adding all the chains except the one at the base of the lantern. This recommendation was accepted, although a fifth chain at the base of the lantern was added in response to lightning damage and a sixth chain was added to replace the higher of the two original chains, which was found to be broken.Mainstone 2003 11-13 The tie rings were added around the dome in 1743–44 by Vanvitelli.Cowan 1977 15 The iron chains included in the design to contain the dome's lateral thrust have had to be replaced ten times since it was constructed.McNeil 2002 881 Giovanni Poleni's 1748 report on the state of the dome anticipated the safe theorem by stating "explicitly that the stability of a structure can be established unequivocally if it can be shown that the thrust line lies completely within the masonry."Hourihane 2012 242 His observation of cracks in the outer shell by the ribs has more recently been attributed by computer models to the heavy lantern.Melaragno 1991 65 House of Habsburg and the Holy Roman Empire House of Habsburg Holy Roman Empire Republic of Florence Republic of Florence#"Dukes of the Republic of Florence" The Medici Chapel in Florence was designed by Michelangelo and built between 1521 and 1534.Melaragno 1991 63 thumb|right|Madonna dell'Umiltà in Pistoia In 1569, the dome over the church of Madonna dell'Umiltà in Pistoia was completed by Giorgio Vasari at the behest of Cosimo I de' Medici, over a building designed and built by others. Although clearly referencing Florence Cathedral visually and in the use of two shells, structurally the octagonal dome is similar to the much earlier dome of Florence Baptistery and the hemispherical shape of Michelangelo's design for the dome of St. Peter's Basilica. Cracks discovered shortly after completion necessitated the addition by Vasari of iron chains on the inside and outside, but structural problems have continued and additional chains have been added over the centuries, many outside of the dome. The instability has been attributed to Vasari's design.Tucci Nobile Riemma 2012 The dome is unique in having its tie-rods visible and "free to vibrate" on the dome's exterior, allowing the stress on the tie-rods to be measured through the frequencies of the vibrations.Ottoni Blasi 2016 175 Vasari was brought on to build the dome in the mid-1500s and changed the original dome profile from a pointed arch to a hemispherical design, which had larger horizontal thrusts, but the supporting drum was relatively high and weak and no supporting encirclement was used during the dome's construction. The lantern is also relatively heavy: it is 1/8th of the weight of the entire dome, compared to the lantern of Florence Cathedral being 1/25th.Ottoni Blasi 2016 174-175 Vasari urgently ordered the first iron ring before the dome was finished, then a second immediately after the first was installed in 1575 (or 1570-1572Ottoni Blasi 2016 175).Collini Fagiani Garziera Riabova 2015 597, 600 An additional tie rod ring was placed in 1585, two more in 1592 (one of which was substituted in 1840–1846 after being broken by lightning), one in 1617 after debris fell from cracks in the dome, and two in 1920/1966 after the earthquake of 1917, for a total of seven external rings and one internal ring.Ottoni Blasi 2016 175 The cost of the Renaissance-era tie rods may have been in the same order of magnitude as the cost of the dome itself.Collini Fagiani Garziera Riabova 2015 597, 600 March of Montferrat March of Montferrat Enrico Bruno, Pope Julius II's secretary and treasurer, had a domed parish church it Chiesa di Santa Maria Annunziata (Roccaverano) built in his hometown of Roccaverano between 1509 and 1516 that was evidently based on a design by Bramante for the church of St. Celso in Rome.Günther 1995 48, 73 County of Carpi it:Signoria di Carpi The cross-domed eastern end of the Church of San Nicolò it Chiesa di San Nicolò (Carpi) in Carpi (1493–1514) has disputed attribution but may have been designed by Biagio Rossetti.Günther 1995 47 Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Mantua Correggio painted the illusionistic Fall of the Giants in the early 1530s at the Palazzo del Te near Mantua. The corners of the square room and domical vault were filled with plaster to create a smooth uninterrupted surface for the painting, which continues from the dome to the supporting walls.Shearman 1992 188-190 Duchy of Ferrara Duchy of Ferrara The Church of San Benedetto it Chiesa di San Benedetto (Ferrara) in Ferrara (1496–1563) has a cross-domed design on its eastern end by Biagio Rossetti.Günther 1995 47 Republic of Genoa Republic of Genoa The slender crossing piers of Genoa Cathedral had already been completed when Galeazzo Alessi was awarded the commission to build the crossing dome. That may explain why the dome was a relatively light design, with a single shell and large windows in the thin drum.Cavalagli Gusella 2015 162 thumb|right|Santa Maria Assunta in Genoa The dome of the church of Santa Maria Assunta in Genoa was built by Alessi in the middle of the 1500s, about eight years after the dome of Genoa Cathedral. It has a quincunx plan with five domes, with a central two-shell ogival dome on a drum. The 14-meter-wide central dome uses metal tie-rods, masonry rings at the base and top, and buttresses between the shells, but has extensive cracking in both shells that extend to the drum.Cavalagli Gusella 2015 161-162 Habsburg Netherlands Habsburg Netherlands Seventeen Provinces Spanish Netherlands In the fifteenth century, pilgrimages to and flourishing trade relations with the Near East had exposed the Low Countries of northwest Europe to the use of bulbous domes in the architecture of the Orient and they were adopted in the architecture of the Netherlands. In Ghent, an octagonal staircase tower for the Church of St. Martin d'Ackerghem, built in the beginning of the sixteenth century, had a bulbous cupola similar to a Syrian minaret. These cupolas were made of wood covered with copper, as were the examples over turrets and towers in the Netherlands at the end of the fifteenth century, many of which have been lost. The earliest example from the Netherlands that has survived is the bulbous cupola built in 1511 over the town hall of Middelburg. Multi-story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting smaller cupolas or crowns became popular in the following decades.Born 1944 209-213 The onion shape was used at the top of important sixteenth-century spires such as the Onze Lieve Vrouw Kerk in Haarlem, the 1566 Oude Kerk in Amsterdam, and the 1599 cheese market of Alkmaar.Schindler 1981 139 Lands of the Bohemian Crown Lands of the Bohemian Crown Russian architecture strongly influenced the many bulbous domes of the wooden churches of Bohemia and Silesia, such as the 1506 wooden church tower pl Kościół św. Wacława w Pniowie in Pniów and the church of St. Anna in Czarnowancz pl Kościół św. Anny w Czarnowąsach.Born 1944 216-218 In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Italian dome had spread north as a wood and copper cupola called in Germany the welsche Haube ("Italian hood") and this structure gradually adopted the bulbous cupola from the Netherlands.Born 1944 214 Tower finials were replaced by curvilinear domes with openwork lanterns in Wrocÿaw and other Silesian cities around 1530, which may have been in reference to the crusader-era bell tower of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, before it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1545.Łuniewicz 2016 3, 14 One of the earliest domes in Silesia was the 1531 domed tower-like belvedere on the roof of the house of Heinrich Rybisch pl Pałac Rybischów we Wrocławiu in Wrocÿaw.Łuniewicz 2016 4 The Gothic finial on the tower of St. Elizabeth's Church in Wrocÿaw was damaged by a storm in 1529 and replaced by a dome on an octagonal drum ringed by semicircular gables in 1534.Łuniewicz 2016 4, 7 The town halls of Jawor (1537), Lubaÿ (1544), and Ÿwidnica may have had domed finials. A parish church in Jelenia Góra from 1552 seems to have had a multi-story tower with domes and openwork. The 1554 tower gate of Brzeg Castle included a superstructure of stacked domes and lanterns.Łuniewicz 2016 4-5 Another example was on the town hall of Brzeg, Silesia (1570–76).Born 1944 214 thumb|right|St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague In Prague, the welsche Haube was apparently little used, but the fully developed onion dome was prominent by the middle of the sixteenth century. The development of the onion shape in Prague architecture may have been an effort to blend Gothic forms with those from Italy, and may also indicate influence from the Netherlands. Drawings published in carpentry manuals and the prestigious association of onion spires with pilgrimage churches encouraged their adoption in the nearby regions of Bavaria, Southern Germany and the Austrian Empire.Schindler 1981 139, 142 Drawings of the city of Prague from 1562 and 1606 show towers and spires capped with onion domes. They are seen on the Rosenberg Palace, the old town water tower cs Šítkovská vodárenská věž, and the main spire of St. Vitus Cathedral (1561–1563), the design of which had been approved by Emperor Ferdinand in 1560.Schindler 1981 138Bažant 2008 34-35 Kingdom of the Germans Kingdom of Germany The 1520 church tower in Giessen de Stadtkirche Gießen had a pointed dome surrounded by gables, one of the earliest of the type documented. Domed finials with surrounding gables are documented in Frankfurt Cathedral (1514) and St James' Church in Lübeck. Additional examples are in the tower domes of St. Jacob's Church in Sangerhausen de Jacobikirche (Sangerhausen) (1514–1542), the Marktkirche Unser Lieben Frauen (1551), and Wetzlar Cathedral (1561).Łuniewicz 2016 8, 10, 13 Bulbous domes in Bavarian rural architecture less resemble Dutch models than Russian ones, due to influence through Bohemia and Silesia. The polygonal domes on the towers of the Frauenkirche in Munich from about 1530 are examples.Born 1944 218-220 The dome of Perlachturm (1519) has similar influences.Łuniewicz 2016 17 A château in Dresden with a tower dome from 1535 was remodeled from 1547 to 1557 to have a series of bell-shaped domes, according to a wooden model.Bažant 2008 35 A bulbous dome of Dutch character was on the tower of the town hall of Emden (1574–76) and other examples were on the town halls of Rothenburg ob der Tauber (1572–78) and Lemgo (c. 1589).Born 1944 214 Duchy of Milan Duchy of Milan thumb|right|European map of territory under Phillip II in 1580. The dome of San Sisto in Piacenza (1499–1514) is circular and includes pendentives with circular medallions.Stephenson Hammond Davi 2005 175-177 Alessio Tramello added the five-domed Chapel of the Virgin Mary to the western transept between 1505 and 1513, possibly inspired by the chapel at Santa Maria presso San Satiro.Günther 1995 48 Milan, between 1550 and 1650, initiated construction of domes for many important churches. Domes in the Lombard region were traditionally hidden externally by lantern towers called timburios, a technique dating from late Antiquity whose structural behavior was well known, but this began to change starting in the 1560s. Domes exposed externally, or "extradoxed", were proposed by architect Pellegrino Tibaldi for the church of church of San Fedele (1568–69), the church of San Sebastiano (1578–86), and the Sanctuary of Caravaggio it Santuario di Santa Maria del Fonte presso Caravaggio (1571). However, the planned extradoxed dome of San Sebastiano had a timburio added and many domes continued to be planned with timburios from the outset. Examples include the Trivulzio chapel in the church of San Nazaro in Brolo (1547), and the churches of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Santa Maria presso San Celso (started in 1497), Santa Maria della Passione (1549–1550), and San Vittore al Corpo (1568–1573). The use of drums beneath domes began in Milan following the trend in Rome and central Italy. They improved lighting for domes but also introduced additional structural problems.Giustina 2003 1033-1038; 1040-1041 The dome of San Vittore al Corpo, like that of Santa Maria Assunta in Genoa, was designed by Galeazzo Alessi as a circular plan dome with double pilasters on the drum but, unlike the Genoa dome, it uses a timburio to cover the outer surface and help restrain thrust.Cavalagli Gusella 2015 162-163 Habsburg Spain and its colonies Habsburg Spain Spanish Empire Crown of Aragon Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Aragon Kingdom of Aragon The dome of the Cathedral of the Savior of Zaragoza (after 1500) is a late example of the Gothic "double-chevet" style.Ward 1915 117-120 The cathedral, built from 1316 to 1520, includes two types of crossed-arch dome.Sakkal 1995 10, 22 Crossed-arch domes were built over the Capilla de la Purificacion in Tarazona Cathedral (16th century) and in the cimborrio of Teruel Cathedral.Sakkal 1995 10 Kingdom of Naples Kingdom of Naples thumb|left|Caracciolo di Vico chapel In Naples, the domes of the Caracciolo di Vico chapel (c. 1516) and the church of Santa Caterina a Formiello (c. 1519) were built before a more somber style was implemented following the reforms of the Council of Trent.Di Liello 2018 21 The dome of Santa Caterina a Formiello, considered to be the first to be built in the capital of the Spanish Viceroyalty that used the Tuscan Renaissance style, was finished in 1577. It is about 11 meters in diameter, made of brick and yellow tuff in a single shell, pointed in profile, and has cladding in Piperno stone and grey tuff. The twin pilasters on the drum exterior correspond to ribs in the dome. The heavy original lantern made from Piperno stone was replaced with one made from lighter materials after an earthquake in 1688.Russo 2020 298-300 Subsequent domes in the 16th century in Naples include those of the monastic complexes of Santa Maria del Popolo, Santi Severino e Sossio, Santa Maria Donnaromita, San Gregorio Armeno, Santa Maria della Mercede a Montecalvario, Santa Maria Regina Coeli, and Santa Maria La Nova.Di Liello 2018 21, 26 The domes of Santa Maria Donnaromita and San Gregorio Armeno were built about 30 years apart, but are covered with similar colored tiles. Simple domes in Naples without lanterns, or with small lanterns, and with undecorated white surfaces, would later be covered with Baroque painting and sculpture that obscured their original plainness.Di Liello 2018 30 In southern Italy, the Church of Santo Stefano in Molfetta hu Santo Stefano (Molfetta) was built with a dome and an adjacent 12-sided pavilion vault over its two rooms sometime between 1530 and 1590. The Church of Santa Maria di Porta Santa in Andria, from the middle of the 16th century, similarly has two adjacent bays covered by octagonal cross vaults on pendentives. The dome of the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Campi Salentina it Chiesa di Santa Maria delle Grazie (Campi Salentina) was reduced in diameter by a series of lunettes at the base.Nobile 2016 31-32 Kingdom of Valencia Kingdom of Valencia The influence of the dome at El Escorial is evident in the dome at the church of Real Colegio Seminario del Corpus Christi in Valencia, which was altered to include a drum between 1595 and 1597.López-Mozo 2013 96-98, 107 Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily In Sicily in the second or third decade of the sixteenth century, Giovan Vincenzo Tagliavia it Tagliavia commissioned a domed funerary chapel behind the apse of the Church of Santa Maria del Gesù it Chiesa di San Domenico (Castelvetrano) in Castelvetrano, and such domed chapels, although not necessarily funerary, would become a distinctive feature of churches in western Sicily. A large number of domed chapels were built between Palermo and Erice.Nobile 2016 16-17 Domed chapels include the Confrati chapel in Santa Maria de Betlem (1520s) in Modica and the Naselli chapel in the Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata in Comiso it Chiesa di San Francesco all'Immacolata (Comiso) (1520sGarofalo 2015 152 or 1549-1555Nobile 2016 20).Garofalo 2015 152 The first known hall structure ending in a domed chapel was the Madonna chapel in the church of the Madonna of Trapani, built around 1530, with the domed chapel modeled after the Basilicò chapel in Palermo's church of Santa Maria dello Spasimo.Nobile 2016 14-16 Domed churches in Sicily include the Church of Sant'Antonio Abate in Palermo (1536)Nobile 2016 35 and the Church of San Francesco in Calatafimi, completed in 1556.Nobile 2016 18-19 In Mazara del Vallo after 1550, the Church of Carmine it Chiesa del Carmine (Mazara del Vallo) and the former Church of Sant'Egidio it Chiesa di Sant'Egidio (Mazara del Vallo) were built with sixteen-sided domes next to their apses, above squinches with a shell motif.Nobile 2016 17 Between roughly 1540 and 1570 on the southern side of the island, domes were built that rested on shallow arches or lintels instead of corner niches. Examples include the Chapel of the Confrati, integrated into the church of Santa Maria de Betlem in the second half of the 16th century, the church of Sant'Antonio in Scicli, the church of San Francesco in Comiso (1549–1555), and the church of Sant'Antonio in Militello (1560–1574).Nobile 2016 19 The church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli included an octagonal vault built by 1580, supported on four slender columns.Nobile 2016 36-38 Other churches with domes include the Church of San Sebastiano in Palermo it Chiesa di San Sebastiano (Palermo), Abbey of San Martino delle Scale (1593), San Giorgio dei Genovesi in Palermo, and the Church of the Gesù in Palermo.Nobile 2016 36, 38-39 The dome of the Church of the Gesù was completed in 1567 but has collapsed and been rebuilt several times. The fifth version of the dome followed its destruction in World War II and was made of reinforced concrete with a significantly different appearance than before the war. The brick tambour was covered with stone on the outside and stucco on the inside. The double-shelled dome was covered with stucco on the inside and majolica on the outside.Cottone Bertorotta 2009 2-3,5 Kingdom of Sardinia Kingdom of Sardinia thumb|right|Church of Santa Caterina in Sassari it Chiesa di Santa Caterina (Sassari) Barrel vaults and domes were introduced into the gothic church style of the island of Sardinia in the second half of the 16th century by engineers working for the Spanish Crown and the Society of Jesus. Examples include the hemispherical dome on pendentives of the Cathedral of Sassari (1530s), the hemispherical dome on squinches of the Church of Saint Agostino in Cagliari it Chiesa di Sant'Agostino (Cagliari) (1577–1580), and the octagonal dome on pendentives of the Church of Santa Caterina in Sassari it Chiesa di Santa Caterina (Sassari) (1578–1609).Garofalo 2015 143-156 A small dome over one of the side chapels in the church of Valverde in Sassari, Sardinia, may date to the 1530s or later.Garofalo 2015 152 Crown of Castile Crown of Castile Kingdom of Murcia Kingdom of Murcia The "Murcia Dome" over the Chapel of the Junterones in Murcia Cathedral, built in 1540 by Jerónimo Quijano es, has a toral geometry achieved by the revolution of a transverse semicircular arch about the oblong plan's short axis.Escrig Cobreros Valcarcel 1997 358 Kingdom of Castile Kingdom of Castile The crossed-arch dome in the Hospital of Santa Cruz de Mendoza in Toledo was built from 1504 to 1514.Sakkal 1995 10 In Seville, the dome over the sacristy of Seville Cathedral (c. 1542), the dome over the Royal Chapel at Seville Cathedral es Capilla Real de la catedral de Sevilla (1562–1575), and the dome of the Jesuit Church of the Annunciation es Iglesia de la Anunciación (Sevilla) (1565–1579) are of a type that partially or entirely emerge from a surrounding parallelepiped, or half-tiburium.Garofalo 2015 152, 154 The domed trellis vault of Parish of Our Lady of the Consolation in Seville, Spain es Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Consolación (Cazalla de la Sierra) by Hernán Ruiz is dated to the 1560s.Guerrero Gonzalo 2009 The domed rotunda chevet chapel of Granada Cathedral was built between 1528 and 1558, initially as an imperial mausoleum for Charles V and his family, and was inspired by the Anastasis of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. This is reflected in the 22 m ft on us diameter of the dome, which is within a half-meter of the width of the Anastasis dome, the windows immediately under the dome, the approximately two-to-one relationship between the heights of the rotunda and the surrounding ambulatory, and the large triumphal arch between the rotunda and the nave, which was a feature of the Anastasis after the mid-12th century.Rosenthal 1958 2, 5, 8-9 The dome of Burgos Cathedral (completed in 1568) is a late example in the Gothic "double-chevet" style.Ward 1915 117-120 After the 1539 collapse of the original tower it was rebuilt by Juan de Vallejo es Juan de Vallejo by 1573, repaired in 1644 following damage from a hurricane and fire, and repaired in the 1980s following damage from a storm. The central vault has eight arms extending from the center to the inner vertices of an eight-sided star polygon, which connects to the inner vertices of another eight-sided star polygon. The gaps between these arms are filled with an openwork grill of various carved shapes, including circles with Greek crosses and trefoils. Huylebrouck Buitrago Iglesias 2011 197 thumb|left|El Escorial In 1564, a dome on a drum was completed over the vestry of the church of San Miguel in Jerez de la Frontera, a rare Spanish example built before those of El Escorial. The domes over the church and towers of El Escorial, built between 1579 and 1582 as extradosed domes on drums, became a model for subsequent Spanish domes, particularly after Juan de Herrera's publication of the main dome's cross-section in 1589.López-Mozo 2013 96López-Mozo 2003 1321 The main dome over the church is a stone spherical dome and lantern on a cylindrical drum and has an internal diameter of 18.94 meters. Smaller versions with internal diameters of 6.68 meters top the two church towers.López-Mozo 2003 1321-1322 It introduced extradosed stone domes on drums to the architecture of Spain, translating the Italian Renaissance style vaults from mainly brick to stone construction. The Courtyard of the Evangelists includes a domed fountain with elliptical lantern pilaster profiles.López Mozo 2011 586, 589 The influence of the dome at El Escorial is evident in domes at the church of the College of Nosa Señora da Antiga in Monforte de Lemos (redesigned after 1592 to be extradosed and have a drum), and the church of San Pablo and San Justo in Granada (completed in 1622 with a similar drum). The similarities in the dome over Cerralbo Chapel es Capilla de Cerralbo at Ciudad Rodrigo, which does not have a drum, include the proportions of the dome thickness, the lantern diameter, and the use of horizontal stone courses in the lower portion of the dome up to 32 degrees, rather than radial courses.López-Mozo 2013 96-98, 107 Alonso de Vandelvira's es Alonso de Vandelvira Tratado de Arquitectura, from around 1580, is the first Spanish scientific treatise and contains the first recorded definitions of the geometry of meridian and parallel ribs for six kinds of oval domes. It is evidence of the scientific and cultural exchange occurring with Italy in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Early oval domes built in Spain in the second half of the sixteenth century include the crossing dome of the cathedral of Cordoba and the chapter house dome of Seville Cathedral.Duvernoy 2015 448, 450 The dome of San Sebastian in Alcaraz, Spain, was completed in 1592 and is said to have been designed by Andrés de Vandelvira before his death. It uses a lattice vault design with a grid of stone structural ribs. The caissons are filled in with lighter or smaller blocks of stone.Wouters van de Voorde Bertels Espion 2018 407 Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Navarre The influence of the dome at El Escorial is evident in the domed tower at the Monastery of Irache.López-Mozo 2013 96-98, 107 Viceroyalty of New Spain New Spain thumb|right|Global map of territory under Phillip II in 1598. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, from the 16th to the 18th centuries, thousands of churches were built in Mexico. The churches vary, but surviving examples from central Mexico are typically on a Latin cross plan with a brick dome on a drum at the crossing. Adobe was widely used in early examples but these buildings were often replaced or destroyed by earthquakes.Peña Manzano 2015 300-301 Thick rib cross-vaulting in a dome-like shape was used in the 16th century. Most churches used a bell-gable instead of a bell tower, although stone bell towers were often added in later centuries, typically topped by a small hemispherical dome. Vaults and domes were usually built with brick and, like towers, were particularly vulnerable to earthquakes. Domes developed vertical cracks from the lateral movement and were more vulnerable than vaults because movement in the drums beneath them could increase the damage. A large amount of movement in a single event or the cumulative effect of multiple earthquakes could result in collapse. Only a few examples from the 16th century survive.Peña Chávez 2016 332, 334-335 Domes were sometimes decorated with Azulejo tilework, a style inherited from the Islamic art of Al-Andalus.Jeffery 2003 302 Domes were used in some of the earliest churches in Mexico and were also used in secular architecture. Early domes were commonly hemispherical and low, springing from the level of the roofline, rather than using an intervening drum. They almost always have an octagonal base and commonly have windows piercing each segment of the dome near the base, which correspond to dormers on the exterior that are treated as if part of a drum. An examples is the dome of the Church of San Hipólito in Mexico City.Baxter 1902 12-13 The plaza fountain in the Mexican town of Chiapa de Corzo was built in 1586 with a brick octagonal ribbed dome with Mudéjar influences.Jeffery 2003 301, 304 The Cathedral of Mérida in Yucatán, Mexico, was the first cathedral finished on the American continent and contains a domed trellis vault with a grid of ribs by Juan Miguel de Agüero that is dated to 1598.Guerrero Gonzalo 2009 Viceroyalty of Peru Viceroyalty of Peru In Lima, churches were built throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth century with stone or brick domes and vaults, even after collapses from seismic activity, due to the concerns of fire and rot in the use of wooden structures.Valdez 2009 845-846 Swiss Confederacy Old Swiss Confederacy The church of Saint Lucius (begun 1520), now in Moncucco, was a cross-domed church that followed the Venetian model.Günther 1995 49 Republic of Venice Republic of Venice thumb|right|The Villa Capra, or "La Rotonda", near Vicenza. A large number of cross-domed churches were built in Venice in the Renaissance style between 1490 and 1530 and it became the predominant building type for the period. The Church of San Nicolò di Castello it Chiesa di San Nicolò di Castello (c. 1476–1503) was subsequently destroyed. The destroyed Church of San Andrea della Certosa (1489–1510) had a cross-domed antechamber. The church of San Giovanni Grisostomo (begun in 1497) was built by Mauro Codussi. The cross-domed church of San Geminiano (begun 1505) at the Piazza San Marco has since been destroyed.Günther 1995 47 The Benedictine convent church of San Benedetto in Bergamo by Pietro Isabello it Pietro Isabello was a cross-domed church built from 1516 to around 1520.Günther 1995 49 The cross-domed church of San Giovanni Elemosinario was begun in 1527. The churches of Santa Maria Mater Domini (c. 1502–1540) and San Felice (early 1530s) have a varied form of cross-dome plan.Günther 1995 47 The church of San Fantin was built beginning in 1507.Günther 1995 47-48 The domed bell tower of the church of Madonna dell'Orto was completed in 1503.Łuniewicz 2016 8 In Venice, there is evident Byzantine influence in the line of three domes over the nave and crossing of the church of San Salvador, built between 1506 and 1534 by Giorgio Pietro Spavento and Tullio Lombardo.Melaragno 1991 70-71 It repeats the crossed-dome unit three times, similar to the nave of St. Mark's Basilica.Günther 1995 47-48. 72 The domed tower of the Palazzo del Capitano in Padua (c. 1532) may have inspired structures in Silesia, similar to the domed bell towers of the Abbey of Santa Giustina (1532) and San Giorgio dei Greci (before 1550).Łuniewicz 2016 4 The Abbey of Santa Giustina was begun in 1521 but construction did not accelerate until 1532. Its east end cross-dome system elaborated on versions used in earlier churches.Günther 1995 49 The Villa Capra, also known as "La Rotunda", was built by Andrea Palladio from 1565 to 1569 near Vicenza. Its highly symmetrical square plan centers on a circular room covered by a dome, and it would prove highly influential on the Georgian architects of 18th century England, architects in Russia, and architects in America, Thomas Jefferson among them.Nuttgens 1997 187–189 Commissioned by count and churchman Paolo Almerico, Palladio designed a dome for the residence because he believed that the Latin meaning of "domus" being "house" indicated that ancient Roman houses were domed.Castex 2008 206 Palladio's temple at Villa Barbaro in Maser was built between 1554 and 1580 (often attributed to 1560). It has a hemispherical masonry dome with a large lantern made of timber to reduce its weight. Palladio included an internal circular brickwork beam at the springing of the dome in the drum that resists horizontal movement through friction between bricks and tension within the bricks.Foraboschi 2014 325-326, 329 Palladio's two domed churches in Venice are Il Redentore (1577–92) and San Giorgio Maggiore (1565–1610), the former built in thanksgiving for the end of a bad outbreak of plague in the city.Nuttgens 1997 187–189 Also attributed to Palladio, the church of Le Zitelle (1579–1586) has a timber dome like those of Il Redentore and San Giorgio Maggiore.Pajovic 2024 736 Principality of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia Principality of Moscow Tsardom of Russia In the 16th century, large five-domed cathedrals were built in Russia in imitation of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, such as at Rostov Veliky, Khutyn Monastery, Trinity Makaryev Monastery ru Троицкий Макарьев монастырь, Vologda, Danilov Monastery, and Novodevichy Convent.Solovyev 2014 45 Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth thumb|right|Dome of Sigismund's Chapel in Kraków The spread of the Renaissance style dome outside of Italy began with central Europe. Although there was often a stylistic delay of a century or two, Poland has a number of important examples, such as the Polish Sigismund's Chapel in Kraków (1517–1533).Melaragno 1991 73 It was built by Bartolommeo Berrecci and the domed chapel was imitated in the centralized domed chapels of nobles and clergymen for more than a century. An example is the Myszkowski Chapel pl Kaplica Maciejowskiego na Wawelu.Ostrowski 1999 49 As elements likely associated with Roman Catholic church buildings at this time, the use of domed transepts outside Italy may indicate partiality towards Roman Catholicism over Protestantism. Examples include a church in Dąbrowa Zielona (1554), a Jesuit church in Nieśwież (1586–1599), and a Jesuit church in Kraków.Kurzej 2015 175-176 Early examples in Gdańsk, such as the tower of the town hall (1561) and the tower of the church of St. Catherine (1634), show Dutch and possibly Russian influence.Born 1944 214–215 In the eastern parts of the Commonwealth, Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches maintained the forms developed during the Middle Ages, such as Greek cross plans or longitudinal plans in three parts with each part covered by a dome, but with updated styling. Examples include the Walachian church of Paulo Dominici (1591–1629), the Church of St. Onufry in Husiatyn pl Cerkiew Świętego Onufrego w Husiatynie (c. 1600), and the Chapel of the Three Saints pl Cerkiew_Wołoska_we_Lwowie#Kaplica_Trzech_Świętych_Hierarchów (after 1671).Krasny 1999 92 Kingdom of France Stereotomy, custom cutting of stone voussoirs to form a vault, was first used in French non-ribbed domes at the Château de Bournazel fr Château de Bournazel (1545) and the Pendentif de Valence fr Pendentif de Valence (1548); the technique would be rare in France until the seventeenth century.Galletti 2021 253, 277–278 The dome of a chapel at Château d'Anet by Philibert de l'Orme, built from 1549 to 1552 as part of renovations for King Henry II's mistress, Diane of Poitiers, is regarded as a masterpiece of stereotomy and the architect published a theory of the technique in 1567. The dome consists of thirteen courses of stone voussoirs cut to form seven and a half courses of diamond coffers. The eighteen pairs of ribs between the coffers spiral in opposite directions to a lantern-covered oculus and shrink in size as they ascend, producing an illusion of greater height.Galletti 2021 253, 261 The floor beneath the dome was also designed with a pattern corresponding to the coffers of the dome.Cabezas 2011 266, 270 See also Early and simple domes History of modern period domes References 3 20em Bibliography 35em Bagliani Stefano May 2009 The Architecture and Mechanics of Elliptical Domes Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Construction History, Cottbus http://www.bma.arch.unige.it/PDF/CONSTRUCTION_HISTORY_2009/VOL1/Bagliani-Stefano_layouted.pdf 2015-03-10 2013-10-16 https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100046/http://www.bma.arch.unige.it/PDF/CONSTRUCTION_HISTORY_2009/VOL1/Bagliani-Stefano_layouted.pdf dead Baxter Sylvester 1902 Spanish-colonial Architecture in Mexico 1 Gómez de Mora J. B. 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The Significance of Papal Medals for the Architectural History of Rome 1987 Studies in the History of Art Vol. 21, Symposium Papers VIII: Italian Medals 21 National Gallery of Art 42620187 283–297 Wouters Ine van de Voorde Stephanie Bertels Inge Espion Bernard de Jonge Krista Zastavni Denis Building Knowledge, Constructing Histories 1 2018 CRC Press 978-0-429-82264-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=a7NjDwAAQBAJ Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Construction History (6ICCH 2018), July 9–13, 2018, Brussels, Belgium. The Dome Uffici di Presidenza S.C.V. October 5, 2014 http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/vaticanstate/en/monumenti/basilica-di-s-pietro/cupola.html vaticanstate 2014 Category:Domes Category:Arches and vaults Category:Church architecture Category:Mosque architecture Category:Baroque architectural features Category:Roofs Domes Category:16th-century architecture