1988 Nepal earthquake

Earthquake near the Nepal–India border 1988 08 21 04:39:11 NST 1988-08-20 23:09:09 Nepal usp0003k6t 429573 6.9 w 57.4 km on 26.755 N 86.616 E inline,title VIII 1,003 deaths, 9,979 injuriesFujiwara T. Sato T. Kubo T. Murakami H.O. 1989 On the 21 August 1988 earthquake in the Nepal-India border region. Japanese Group for the Study of Natural Disaster Science Reconnaissance Report No B-63-4 1988 Nepal Earthquake The 1988 Nepal earthquake occurred near the Nepal–India border on 20 August 1988 at 23:09:09 UTC. M 6.9 - 9 km WSW of Triyuga, Nepal https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp0003k6t/executive 29 October 2024 United States Geological Survey. The epicenter was located in Udayapur District. Measuring w 6.9, it was the largest earthquake recorded in the country since 1934.Jain Sudhir K. August 1992 On Better Engineering Preparedness: Lessons from the 1988 Bihar Earthquake https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1193/1.1585687 Earthquake Spectra en 8 3 391–402 10.1193/1.1585687 1992EarSp...8..391J 8755-2930Whelpton John Epicentre to aftermath: rebuilding and remembering in the wake of Nepal's earthquakes 2021 Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-83405-6 Hutt Michael Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY Earthquakes in Nepali History Liechty Mark Lotter Stefanie The death toll in Nepal and Bihar stood at 1,003.Fujiwara T Sato T Murakami H.O. 1989 On the 21 August 1988 earthquake in the Nepal-India border region Japanese Group for the Study of Natural Disaster Science Reconnaissance Report No B-63-4.Significant Earthquake Information https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/5167 17 November 2024 National Oceanic & Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) This was worsened by hillside erosion, landslide and floods, which increased the death toll by almost 300. There was significant damage to buildings and infrastructure including schools and hospitals, which left up to half a million people homeless, which had a significant impact of health and desolated the economy.Bista Dor Bahadur February 1989 Nepal in 1988: Many Losses, Some Gains https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644583 Asian Survey en 29 2 223–228 10.1525/as.1989.29.2.01p0251s 2644583 0004-4687 subscription This led to overcrowding and a lack of sanitation, which contributed to health conditions. Local and international response relief efforts were hindered by the heavy monsoon, mountainous terrain, infrastructure damage, lack of helicopters and uncoordinated response. Geology The entire region lies above two converging tectonic plates, the Indian and Eurasian plate. These plates are converging at a rate of 40–50 mm/year.USGS Open-File Report 2010‒1083–J: Seismicity of the Earth 1900‒2010 Himalaya and Vicinity https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/j/ 2024-11-12 pubs.usgs.gov The Indian plate is continuously subducting beneath the Eurasian plate, rendering the entire of Hindu-Kush-Himalaya region prone to earthquakes.Chaulagain Hemchandra Revisiting Major Historical Earthquakes in Nepal 2018 Impacts and Insights of Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal 1–17 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-812808-4.00001-8 2024-11-03 Elsevier 978-0-12-812808-4 Gautam Dipendra Rodrigues Hugo 10.1016/b978-0-12-812808-4.00001-8 subscription There are three major thrust faults in the region, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT).Ghimire Subesh Kasahara Minoru October 2007 Source process of the Ms = 6.6, Udayapur earthquake of Nepal–India border and its tectonic implication https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912007001198 Journal of Asian Earth Sciences en 31 2 128–138 10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.04.007 2007JAESc..31..128G subscription This earthquake occurred in the Siwalik sedimentary region and involved oblique faulting with a combination of strike-slip and thrust fault movements contributing to the release of tectonic stress.Pande M. R. Nicolas M. 1991-12-01 The aftershock sequence of the Udaypur (Nepal) earthquake of August 20, 1988 https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32589 Journal of Nepal Geological Society 7 10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32589 2676-1378 subscription Within 39 days of the mainshock, the Department of Mines and Geology recorded 155 aftershocks. Six of which had a magnitude greater than 4Mw.Dikshit A. M. 1991-12-01 Geological effects and Intensity distribution of the Udayapur (Nepal) earthquake of August 20, 1988 https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32588 Journal of Nepal Geological Society 7 10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32588 2676-1378 Damage and casualties In addition to the magnitude of earthquakes, the local geology and the building techniques also affect the extent of damage and devastation.How do earthquakes affect people? https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/earthquakes/how-do-earthquakes-affect-people/ 2024-11-22 British Geological Survey en-GB The major causes of fatalities and injuries were from the structural damage to the buildings caused by ground vibration, liquefaction, and landslides. Similar damage to buildings occurred in the northern region of Bihar in India.Thakkar S. Paul D. Mukerjee S. Bandyopadhyay S. Kumar Ashwani Lavania B. 1991-03-11 Behavior of Buildings in August 21, 1988 Bihar-Nepal Earthquake https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/icrageesd/02icrageesd/session12/1/ International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Considerable damage to buildings were reported in the eastern city of Dharan, rendering thousands of people homeless.Chamlagain Deepak Bhattarai Ganesh Kumar Rajaure Sudhir 2011-09-24 Seismic hazard assessment of eastern Nepal using 1934 and 1988 earthquakes http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v42i0.31453 Journal of Nepal Geological Society 42 85–93 10.3126/jngs.v42i0.31453 2676-1378 free The buildings were not constructed to withstand the geological forces of nature as the brick masonry buildings used traditional and poor quality of construction, lacked maintenance, and the foundation designs were inadequate to resist the effects of liquefaction. The lack of regard for the risks of earthquake was evident from the fact, that until 1994, there was no legislation or protocol requirement for earthquake resistant building designs and construction in Nepal; the 1988 earthquake instigated the development of safety initiatives and building codes.Bothara, J., Dizhur, D., Dhakal, R.P. and Ingham, J., (2018) From the 1988 Udaypur to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal and beyond. In 2018 NZSEE Conference, New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering. More than 720 fatalities and significant number of injuries were recorded, predominantly in the eastern plains and mountains as well as in some areas in the central mountainous region of Nepal. The earthquake caused extensive damage to critical infrastructures, including houses, public buildings, schools, roads, bridges, as well as irrigation canals and water supplies. Damage to the Mahendra Highway at several places and disruption to telecommunications hindered access to the hardest hit areas. Bihar state in India accounted for over 280 deaths and numerous injuries. The immediate aftermath of the earthquake saw a surge in injuries due to building collapses. Many of these injuries were severe, including crush injuries and fractures, requiring urgent medical attention.Mavrouli Maria Mavroulis Spyridon Lekkas Efthymios Tsakris Athanassios 2023-02-07 The Impact of Earthquakes on Public Health: A Narrative Review of Infectious Diseases in the Post-Disaster Period Aiming to Disaster Risk Reduction Microorganisms en 11 2 419 10.3390/microorganisms11020419 free 2076-2607 9968131 36838384 The destruction of healthcare infrastructure and the displacement of populations led to an increased risk of infectious disease outbreaks. Poor sanitation, lack of clean water, and overcrowded shelters contributed to the spread of diseases such as diarrhoea, respiratory infections, and fever. The earthquake impacted educational attainment among children in the worst-affected areas, with the likelihood of completing secondary and tertiary education decreasing by 13.8 percent and 10 percent, respectively. Children from lower caste groups were the most severely affected, with a 17.6 percent reduction in the likelihood of completing secondary education, while children from higher castes were not significantly affected. At the same time, male children perform significantly better than female children in schooling, indicating gender bias in society. These reductions in education levels are directly linked to future health status, with less educated populations typically facing higher health risks and poorer health management skills. The study highlights that natural disasters not only affect education but also have a profound negative impact on children's human capital accumulation and health.Paudel Jayash Ryu Hanbyul November 2018 Natural disasters and human capital: The case of Nepal's earthquake https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305750X18302110 World Development en 111 1–12 10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.06.019 Reports from a Japanese natural disaster study group showed that the casualties were higher among females, children and the elderly, compared to young males, due to their reduced ability to escape from the physical impact of the disaster. In the aftermath, personnel at the British military hospital based at Dharan described their experience of lack of facilities in dealing with mass casualties that was compounded by communication loss. They also highlighted the plight of pregnant ladies in labour.Guy P. J. Ineson N. Bailie R. Grimwood A. 1990-02-01 Operation Nightingale: The Role of BMH Dharan Following the 1988 Nepal Earthquake, and Some Observations on Third World Earthquake Disaster Relief Missions https://militaryhealth.bmj.com/content/136/1/7.long BMJ Military Health en 136 1 7–18 10.1136/jramc-136-01-02 2633-3767 2319510 subscription The extensive damage to school buildings affected approximately 300,000 children for several months.Dixit Amod Mani Yatabe Ryuichi Dahal Ranjan Kumar Bhandary Netra Prakash 2014-10-02 Public School Earthquake Safety Program in Nepal http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19475705.2013.806363 Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk en 5 4 293–319 10.1080/19475705.2013.806363 2014GNHR....5..293D 1947-5705 Response thumb|200px|Strong ground motion map The Nepal government reacted mobilised resources and coordinated efforts across various agencies. The Royal Nepal Army, police, local officials, and the Nepal Red Cross Society collaborated to address the hardest-hit areas, such as Dharan and Dhankuta, despite the government's limited resources.Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance Disaster Case Report: NEPAL- Earthquake FY 1988 https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAH062.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240925171603/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAH062.pdf dead September 25, 2024 Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance1988-08-22 Nepal Earthquake Aug 1988 UNDRO Situation Reports 1 - 8 - Nepal https://reliefweb.int/report/nepal/nepal-earthquake-aug-1988-undro-situation-reports-1-8 UNDHA 2024-11-03 ReliefWeb en Search and rescue teams were immediately dispatched from Kathmand while the army transported survivors to hospitals. Helicopters were essential in reaching isolated regions to transport survivors to medical facilities. Heavy monsoon rains followed soon after the earthquake, significantly hindering local relief efforts. The effects of these rains were especially challenging in mountainous regions with poor road infrastructure, where helicopters were the only viable option for reaching affected communities. The Nepalese Red Cross provided essential supplies, including food, clothing, blankets, and utensils, particularly in areas where local government support was insufficient. To coordinate the relief, the Home Secretary established the Central Disaster Relief Committee, which allocated over US$300,000 in disaster relief funds to the Eastern Zone. International response The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction quickly recognised the extent of the disaster and launched an international appeal, focusing on monetary donations rather than material aid. The United States was one of the major donors, contributing over $380,000 to supply medical materials, disaster consultants, and plastic sheeting for temporary shelters. Japan also provided critical support, including around 2,000 blankets, medical supplies, and additional relief items, valued at approximately US$450,000. Despite this extensive support, the international response encountered significant logistical challenges. The mountainous terrain, combined with widespread road damage, limited the efficiency of many relief efforts. Helicopters were in short supply and remained the only reliable means of accessing the most affected areas, slowing the distribution of crucial resources. Coordination issues also contributed to delays, emphasising the need for robust disaster response frameworks that can aid countries facing challenging conditions. Legacy Weak infrastructure, specifically medical facilities, transportation systems and communication networks, were particularly exposed after the earthquake. The destruction of roads and bridges after the earthquake resulted in the inability of relief supplies and personnel to reach the affected areas promptly. Future earthquakes could cause even greater damage unless regular reinforcements and countermeasures are implemented.Gautam Dipendra 1 August 2017 On seismic vulnerability of highway bridges in Nepal: 1988 Udaypur earthquake (MW 6.8) revisited https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267726117302804 Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 99 168–171 10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.05.014 0267-7261 24 November 2024 subscription After the 1988 Nepal earthquake, several disaster mitigation programmes were implemented in Nepal.Bothara Jitendra Ingham Jason Dizhur Dmytro 1 January 2018 Chapter 11 - Earthquake Risk Reduction Efforts in Nepal https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128120569000117 Integrating Disaster Science and Management Elsevier 177–203 10.1016/B978-0-12-812056-9.00011-7 978-0-12-812056-9 24 November 2024 subscription The Nepal Seismic Safety Centre (NSET) initiated the School Seismic Safety Program in 1998. The program helped to strengthen school buildings, their non-structural components.Bothara J. K. Pandey B. Guragain R. 31 March 2004 Seismic retrofitting of low strength unreinforced masonry non-engineered school buildings https://bulletin.nzsee.org.nz/index.php/bnzsee/article/view/410 Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering en 37 1 13–22 10.5459/bnzsee.37.1.13-22 2324-1543 24 November 2024 free It was later expanded to include first aid training, disaster response plans, and the integration of Disaster Risk Management into school curricula. See also List of earthquakes in 1988 List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in Nepal References ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900–2009) http://www.isc.ac.uk/iscgem/index.php ISC 19 January 2015 International Seismological Centre Version 2.0 Significant Earthquake Database https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=1&d=1 https://web.archive.org/web/20060929000601/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=1&d=1 dead September 29, 2006 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA 10.7289/V5TD9V7K 1972 Data Set PAGER-CAT Earthquake Catalog https://earthquake.usgs.gov/static/lfs/data/pager/catalogs/ September 4, 2009 United States Geological Survey Version 2008_06.1 External links M6.9 – Nepal-India border region – United States Geological Survey Earthquakes in Bihar, India – Amateur Seismic Centre 429573 1988 Nepal Earthquake, 1988 1988 Category:1988 earthquakes Category:Natural disasters in Bihar Earthquake Category:1980s in Bihar Category:August 1988 in Asia