1453

1453 250px|thumb|May 29: The Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. 1453 Year 1453 (MCDLIII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1453rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 453rd year of the 2nd millennium, the 53rd year of the 15th century, and the 4th year of the 1450s decade. In April, the forces of the Ottoman Empire began besieging the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. The city's fall and the destruction of the empire in May sparked fear and religious fervor against the Ottomans across Europe. Pope Nicholas V issued a crusading bull and attempted to negotiate a peace in the ongoing war in northern Italy, which saw Venice and Naples fight with the forces of Florence, Milan, and their French allies. In July, France routed the forces of England at the Battle of Castillon, and subdued the last English holdouts over the following months, ending the Hundred Years' War and English territorial control in France. The Ming dynasty of China was troubled by the growing power of the newly-proclaimed Khagan Esen Taishi in Mongolia. A diplomatic incident occurred when an embassy mission from the Japanese Ashikaga shogunate rioted and attacked Chinese civilians. Violent succession disputes broke out in several countries, including the Ryukyu Kingdom in Okinawa and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. A "mystery eruption" occurred at an unknown location in the northern hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453, beginning a 15-year period of colder weather across the hemisphere. A major drought continued in the Aztec Empire, leading to famine and many deaths. China was devastated by catastrophic flooding along the Yellow River and an exceptionally cold winter. Global events chronological summary of the year's events 1453 events A major volcanic eruption of unknown source likely occurred somewhere in the Northern Hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453. The Kuwae caldera in Vanuatu was previously seen as a candidate for this eruption, but ice core analysis has instead linked it to another mystery eruption in 1458. Attested through dendrochronology (analysis of tree rings) across the northern hemisphere for 1453, temperatures decreased by 0.4–6.9°C (0.7–12.4°F), beginning a 15-year cold period.Abbott et al. 2021 565–567, 575Sigl et al. 2013 1151 Africa Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq, sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt since 1438, died on February 13. His son Al-Mansur Uthman, only 18 years old, ascended to the throne; desperate to avoid being overthrown for his youth, Uthman attempted to purchase the loyalty of various high-ranking mamluks using heavily debased coinage. Supreme Commander Sayf al-Din Inal led a coup d'état alongside his Zahiri emir allies against the young sultan, seizing the Cairo Citadel. Inal was accepted as sultan by Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im in April.Petry 2022 41 Asia Hostile relationships continued between the Ming Dynasty and the growing Oirat confederation of Esen Taishi. Esen had captured the Yingzong Emperor in battle four years prior, and killed Northern Yuan leader Taisun Khan early in the previous year. Early in the year, the Minister of War Yu Qian considered a plan for an offensive campaign against the Oirat and Mongols, but ultimately focused on maintaining the northern border, unwilling to disrupt the newly reformed command structure of the Ming military. Having dominated the Mongol tribes after his defeat of Taisun, Esen declared himself Khagan of the Northern Yuan, becoming the first non-Borjigin to do so. The alarmed Ming government heightened border security, and debated whether to recognize Esen as Khagan.De Heer 1986 90–91, 95–98 However, Esen's declaration led to significant internal conflict against his rule.Twitchett 1988 331 A recent series of annual floods worsened in central China, with the Yellow River devastating Henan. Urgent repairs to dikes along the Grand Canal were initially unsuccessful, leading to the appointment of the engineer Xu Youzhen to supervise efforts to maintain the canal and vital grain shipments to Beijing.De Heer 1986 94–95Zhou Deng 2021 213Twitchett 1988 335 An exceptionally cold winter caused heavy snow across northern and central China at the end of the year, with many deaths reported in the icebound Huai River valley. Following years of unrest among the Yao and Miao peoples, a regional uprising against Ming rule broke out in Guizhou and Huguang.Twitchett 1988 336 The somewhat unstable political legitimacy of the Jingtai Emperor in the wake of Yingzong's capture was heightened after the death of Zhu Jianji zh 朱见济, his son and heir apparent, on December 18.De Heer 1986 95–98 After a twenty-year halt, a large Japanese tribute mission was dispatched by the Ashikaga Shogunate to the Ming court. The envoys were angered by court officials' refusal to pay high prices for the wares, and rioted along their return journey, looting civilian houses in Lingqing, Shandong, and attacking officials sent to investigate. The Jingtai Emperor decided not to capture the riotous diplomats, hesitant to upset diplomatic relations with Japan.Wang 2023 109 On the island of Okinawa, a succession dispute between the princes Shiro and Furi of the Ryukyu Kingdom resulted in the burning of Shuri Castle. Shō Taikyū, possibly a third party to the conflict, would be enthroned as king the following year.Smits 2024 231–232 Europe Central and Eastern Europe In 1452–1453, the twelve-year-old Ladislaus the Posthumous assumed power in Hungary without a coronation. The previous de facto ruler, regent János Hunyadi, maintained a position in government. On October 28, Ladislaus was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague, ending an interregnum that had lasted since the death of Albert II in 1439.Oslanský 1996 21–26Bak 1998 716–717 Vasily II, the Grand Prince of Moscow, solidified his power in the waning years of the Muscovite War of Succession. Rival throne claimant Dmitry Shemyaka had been forced to flee to the Novgorod Republic several years prior after a military defeat in Galich. He continued his efforts to take control of Moscow, with his strongholds in the rural northern areas along the Northern Dvina and Vychegda. In 1453, he returned to Veliky Novgorod, where he was fatally poisoned, possibly on Vasily's orders.Martin 2006 175Crummey 1987 75 Fall of Constantinople alt=A labeled miniature painting showing the fall of Constantinople in 1453|thumb|Mid-1450s French miniature depicting the Fall of Constantinople Mehmed II, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, began preparations to conquer the city of Constantinople, the capital of the declining Byzantine Empire, soon after his ascension to the throne in 1451. He had fortified the European coast north of the city, giving him full control over the Bosporus Strait.Necipoğlu 2009 221 Mehmed mobilized the Ottoman army in early January, and arranged for large bombards to be brought to the staging areas. Some Ottoman forces attacked the Byzantine strongholds of Mesambria and Selybria later in January; Mesambria quickly surrendered, while Selybria held out until March.Philippides Hanak 2011 411, 573Harris 2010 185–186 Mercenary forces led by the Genoese captain Giovanni Giustiniani arrived in the city on January 26, joining Venetian forces stationed in the city.Harris 2010 189 Ottoman forces began besieging Constantinople itself on April 6, with Mehmed hoping to starve the city into surrender. Although the city's population had declined greatly since its peak, food shortages set in quickly; an emergency order was given to distribute bread to the family of soldiers, as many had abandoned their posts to care for their starving families.Necipoğlu 2009 220–221 With the entrance to the city's harbor, the Golden Horn, blocked by the Byzantines, Ottoman forces transported their ships from the Bosporous into the Golden Horn by hauling them over the hills of Pera. After three smaller assaults over the prior weeks, the Ottomans launched a mass assault on the morning of May 29. The third wave of the assault took the city's walls and subdued the defenders, with the Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos dying in unclear circumstances. Ottoman forces sacked the city for three days.Philippides Hanak 2011 575–578alt=A map of the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Empire in 1453. Successor states, including Morea, Athens, Epirus, Trebizond, and Theodoro, are also featured|thumb|The Byzantine Empire and its successor states before the fall of Constantinople in 1453 Some rump states of the Byzantine Empire still remained — the Despotate of the Morea and the separatist Empire of Trebizond. The Palaiologos scions Demetrios and Thomas shared the title of Despot of the Morea, and fought among themselves. Later in 1453, a rebel leader named Manuel Kantakouzenos led a group of Albanians in the Morea into a rebellion against the despots. Mehmed dispatched the Ottoman general Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey to put down the revolt, although he would not see immediate success.Bartusis 1992 134–135 The fall of Constantinople caused great fear, anxiety, and anger among Christian leaders throughout Europe. Anti-Turkish sentiment spread widely. As the news spread across Europe, songs and poems were composed lamenting the fall of the city and condemning the Ottoman Empire. Prominent examples from 1453 include Balthasar Mandelreiß's poem de Türkenschrei, commissioned by the Holy Roman imperial court, and Michael Beheim's song-poem de Von den Türken und dem adel sagt dis.McDonald 2017 372–373 Pope Nicholas V called for a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, issuing a crusading bull on September 30.Hardy 2024 6 Western Europe Italy In Rome, a plot by the humanist nobleman Stefano Porcari to overthrow Pope Nicholas V was discovered and put down by Papal forces in early January. Porcari escaped capture multiple times, but was eventually discovered hiding in a chest, and was executed on January 9.D'Elia 2007 210–212 A series of regional military conflicts across Northern Italy centered on Lombardy continued in 1453.Ilardi 1959 129–138 Francesco Sforza, who had risen to power in Milan, allied with the Republic of Florence against their mutual enemies, Venice and the Kingdom of Naples under Alfonso V of Aragon. In 1452, Milan and Florence entered into an alliance with Charles VII of France, who was opposed to the potential expansion of Alfonso's control in Italy. Held up by its campaign against the English, France was initially unable to offer any direct aid, but was able to prevent the Duchy of Savoy, a Venetian ally, from invading Lombardy.Ilardi 1959 136–138Mallett 1998 556–558 On June 14, Ludovico Gonzaga of Mantua defended Mantua against Venetian forces led by his brother, Carlo Gonzaga.Swain 1989 443 René of Anjou, a French nobleman who had previously ruled Naples, allied with Florence and invaded Italy in August 1453 with a force of 2,000 soldiers, which soon grew to 3,000. Initially attempting to negotiate with the Venetians, Rene declared war on the republic on 10 October. Together with Milan and Florence, his forces managed to capture the region around Cremona, Bergamo, and Brescia by late November, although the onset of winter put a halt to the campaign.Ilardi 1959 139–140 Concerned by the fall of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas V attempted to negotiate peace in the region in order to unite Christian Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Peace talks sponsored by Nicholas began in November. His efforts would materialize in April of the following year as the Treaty of Lodi.Ilardi 1959 139–140Mallett 1998 558 England and France The Parliament of England met at Reading on March 6. The members of the parliament were highly receptive to King Henry VI's rule due to the crushing of Jack Cade's Rebellion in 1450 and the reconquest of Gascony by John Talbot in 1452. The parliament approved a grant giving Henry the ability to raise an army of 20,000 archers for a period of six months, likely intend for a future reconquest of Gascony or Normandy.Wolffe 2001 264–266 Français 5054, fol. 229v, Bataille de Castillon (1453).jpg 15th-century painters - Surrender of the Burghers of Ghent in 1453 - WGA15789 (cropped).jpg 200 1484 depiction of the Battle of Castillon A colorful illustration of a group of English and French knights fighting outside a castle. The French have several cannons 1450s depiction of the surrender of Ghent to Philip the Good after the Battle of Gavere A group of burghers are kneeling on the ground outside a castle on a starry night. They are surrendering to a group of men on horseback, including Duke Philip the Good, holding a sword A reinforcement of over 2,000 men led by a number of prominent noblemen was sent to Gascony in March, increasing Talbot's forces to upwards of 7,300. However, the French navy was able to cut off English access to Bordeaux via the Gironde estuary, preventing further reinforcement. On July 17, the French routed the English army at the Battle of Castillon, killing Talbot. Charles VII's forces moved further into Gascony, laying siege to Bordeaux in August. The city, alongside the holdout of Rions, surrendered on October 20, ending the English presence in the region and bringing a close to the last phase of the Hundred Years' War.Vale 1969 132–133 Holy Roman Empire The town of Ghent was embroiled in a rebellion against the Burgundian State under Duke Philip the Good. Originating from a political dispute between Philip and Ghent, Philip declared war on the town in 1452. In February–March 1453, a Ghenter raiding party attacked several towns in the surrounding region, including Kortrijk.Vaughan 1970 303–328 Philip's rival, Charles VII of France, supported the Ghent rebels, although was unable to offer direct military support due to his ongoing war against the English.Vale 1998 402 With peace negotiations over the spring stalled, Philip attacked the castles around Ghent in June and July, and decisively defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gavere on July 23. The town was forced to pay reparations to pay for Philip's campaign, although it was not occupied or plundered.Vaughan 1970 328–332 The Giant Bible of Mainz was finished on July 9, 1453. It possibly served as an inspiration for the Gutenberg Bible,Crump Francis J. 1952 The Gutenberg Bible https://www.jstor.org/stable/43720372 The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 14 3 216–217 43720372 the first large-scale book produced using a printing press and moveable type. Johannes Gutenberg was overseeing preparations for his bible in 1453 after beginning work on it in 1450. Early copies would be bound and distributed by 1456.Miner 1952 4–6Füssel 2005 18–20, 54 The Americas A major drought which began in 1450 continued to affect the Aztec Empire. Although famine conditions had already begun to set in, they worsened in 1453, and people resorted to famine foods such as the roots of wild plants, corn silk, and agave. Some sold themselves into slavery in exchange for maize. Many died from starvation, especially due to early frosts in the autumn of 1453. The drought and famine would only intensify in the following year.Hassig 1981 174–175Therrell Stahle Soto 2004 1265–1267 Births January 6 – Girolamo Benivieni, Italian poetMariani Giacomo 2017 Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy: Benivieni, Girolamo https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_713-1 Springer Link 10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_713-1 subscription March 2 – Johannes Engel, German doctor, astronomer and astrologerTrimble Virginia https://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA339 Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers Williams Thomas R. Bracher Katherine Jarrell Richard Marché Jordan D. Ragep F. Jamil 2007 Springer Science & Business Media 9780387304007 339 en September 1 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and statesmanGerli Armistead 2003 324 October 13 – Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, only son of Henry VIGriffiths R. A. 2004 Edward [Edward of Westminster], Prince of Wales https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8524 July 20, 2024 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography October 25 – Giuliano de' Medici, Italian noblemanMedici, Giuliano di Piero de' https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuliano-di-piero-de-medici_%28Enciclopedia-machiavelliana%29/ 30 December 2024 Treccani November 7 – Filippo Beroaldo, philosopher and scholarBietenholz Deutscher 1986 135 November 15 – Alfonso, Prince of AsturiasMuñiz Dolores Carmen Morales Alfonso XII de Trastámara https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6419/alfonso-xii-de-trastamara 30 December 2024 Diccionario biográfico español Date unknown Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese naval and military commanderEstela Vieira 2020 Maritime Disasters and Collective Identities: Surviving Shipwreck in Early Modern Portugal Hispania 103 4 549 27026456 Firdevsī-i Rūmī Firdevsī-i Rūmī de Firdevsî, Turkish poetBläsing Uwe 2020 Just an Etymological Note: The Case of Megrelian aӡmax-i, azmax-i 'puddle, pool, pond' Iran and the Caucasus 24 2 180 10.1163/1573384X-20200204 27058084 Shin Mahasilavamsa, Burmese poetOsipov Yuriy M. The Canon in Southeast Asian Literatures: Literatures of Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam 2012 Routledge 9781136816123 Smyth David 2–3 Sultan-Khalil, Sultan of the Aq QoyunluErkinov Aftandil 2015 From Herat to Shiraz: the Unique Manuscript (876/1471) of 'Alī Shīr Nawā'ī's Poetry from Aq Qoyunlu Circle https://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/2791#ftn7 Cahiers d'Asie Centrale 24 53 Deaths January 9 – Stefano Porcari, Italian nobleman and humanist politicianD'Elia 2007 212 February 13 – Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq, Egyptian Mamluk sultanPetry 2022 41 May 29 Constantine XI Palaiologos, Byzantine emperorPhilippides Hanak 2011 577–578Bartusis 1992 134 Demetrios Palaiologos Metochites, Byzantine noble and ambassadorHarris 2010 207 Orhan Çelebi, Ottoman princeHarris 2010 207 June 2 or June 3 – Loukas Notaras, Byzantine statesman and naval commanderPhilippides Hanak 2011 597 June 22 – Álvaro de Luna, Spanish knight and statesmanGerli Armistead 2003 520–521MacKay 1998 615 July – Jacques de Lalaing, Burgundian knightVaughan 1970 328 July 17 John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, English nobleman and military leaderPollard A. J. 2004 Talbot, John, First Earl of Shrewsbury and First Earl of Waterford https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-26932 July 20, 2024 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography John Talbot, 1st Viscount Lisle, English nobleman, son of the Earl of Shrewsbury December 16 – Zhu Jianji zh 朱见济, crown prince of the Ming DynastyDe Heer 1986 97 December 24 – John Dunstaple, English composerBent Margaret 2006 Dunstaple [Dunstable], John https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8286 July 20, 2024 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Date unknown Dmitry Shemyaka, claimant to the Principality of MoscowAlef Gustave 1959 The Political Significance of the Inscriptions on Muscovite Coinage in the Reign of Vasili II https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847975 Speculum 34 1 10–14 10.2307/2847975 2847975 Giovanni Giustiniani, Genoese mercenaryPhilippides Hanak 2011 522–544 Nguyễn An, Vietnamese-born Ming Dynasty court eunuch and architectChan 1988 241 Sophia of Lithuania, Grand Princess of MoscowClements Barbara Evans https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gz5pn A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present 2012 Indiana University Press 9780253001047 18 j.ctt16gz5pn References 2 Bibliography Abbott Peter M. 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