1929 Mexican presidential election

none March 2026 1916 Mexico 17 November 1929 1928 Mexican general election 1928 1934 Mexican general election 1934 1929 Mexican presidential election presidential Pascual Ortiz Rubio in Los Angeles, 1932 (cropped).jpg Pascual Ortiz Rubio PNR 1,947,848 93.55% José Vasconcelos, Mexicain (Pacific) - btv1b532073617 (cropped).jpg José Vasconcelos PNA 0000FF 110,979 5.33% President Emilio Portes Gil PNR Pascual Ortiz Rubio PNR Presidential elections were held in Mexico on 17 November 1929. The winner of these elections was to serve the remainder of the 1928–1934 term for which Álvaro Obregón had been elected to the previous year before his assassination. The National Revolutionary Party, founded in 1928 by Mexico's most powerful leader at the time, Plutarco Elías Calles, made its debut in these elections. The 1929 elections marked the beginning of 71 uninterrupted years of rule by that party, which was later renamed Party of the Mexican Revolution in 1938 and finally, Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1946. No opposition party would win a presidential election until the 2000 elections. According to the official results, the elections were won by Pascual Ortiz Rubio, who received 93.6% of the vote.Nohlen 2005 472 Opposition candidate José Vasconcelos claimed that the elections had been fraudulent and unsuccessfully tried to organize an armed revolt to take power. Ortiz Rubio was not able to serve the remainder of Álvaro Obregón's term as he was supposed to, as he resigned in September 1932 due to differences with Calles. Abelardo L. Rodríguez served the remaining two years of the term. Background Obregón and Calles presidencies A generation of caudillos, authoritarian military leaders with popular support, came to dominate Mexican politics as a result of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920).El caudillismo nace en la lucha de Independencia 2010-08-15 El Informador Guadalajara es https://www.informador.mx/Cultura/El-caudillismo-nace-en-la-lucha-de-Independencia-20100815-0212.html live https://web.archive.org/web/20210424111514/https://www.informador.mx/Cultura/El-caudillismo-nace-en-la-lucha-de-Independencia-20100815-0212.html 2021-04-24 2026-03-14 In 1920, Generals Álvaro Obregón, Adolfo de la Huerta, and Plutarco Elías Calles launched the Plan of Agua Prieta, which successfully ousted President Venustiano Carranza after the latter attempted to impose Ignacio Bonillas as his successor in the 1920 presidential election.Krauze 1998 390-391Adolfo de la Huerta Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México – Unidad Bicentenario es http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=619 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20090624215629/http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=619 2009-06-24 2026-03-11Plutarco Elías Calles Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México – Unidad Bicentenario es http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=621 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20090624215914/http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=621 2009-06-24 2026-03-11 Following Carranza's ouster, de la Huerta became interim president, and held the planned 1920 elections, which Obregón won.Ramírez Rancaño 1977 288 His candidacy was supported by the Laborist Party (PL) of the Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers (CROM) and its leader Luis N. Morones.Torres-Ruiz 2004 18 Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 42 Obregón became president on 1 December of that year,Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 47 Quijano Torres 2012 196 being considered Mexico's last caudillo. Calles served as his secretary of the interior, while de la Huerta was his secretary of finance.Quijano Torres 2012 196-197 In 1923, Obregón supported Calles to succeed him as president.Krauze 1998 397 Calles also received the support of the PL.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 55 De la Huerta felt that Obregón was imitating Carranza by imposing a successor, and so that same year he launched the Delahuertista Rebellion es Rebelión delahuertista. By early 1924, the rebellion had been suppressed.Krauze 1998 397 Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 56-58 Calles won the 1924 presidential election.Ramírez Rancaño 1977 289 thumb|left|Emilio Portes Gil and Plutarco Elías Calles in 1928 During Calles' presidency, his anti-clerical policies led to the three-year Cristero War between the government and Catholic militants, known as Cristeros.Krauze 1998 422 In 1927, the Constitution of Mexico was amended to allow for nonconsecutive presidential reelection and extended terms from four to six years.Suprema Corte 2020 1 Obregón subsequently launched a campaign to be reelected to the presidency,Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 66-67 which was supported by Calles. In the 1928 election, held on 1 July,Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 71 Obregón was reelected unopposed.Ramírez Rancaño 1977 290Buchenau Jürgen How Mexico’s “Undefeated Caudillo” Met His End 2023-01-31 Americas Quarterly https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/how-mexicos-undefeated-caudillo-met-his-end/ live https://web.archive.org/web/20260211182801/https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/how-mexicos-undefeated-caudillo-met-his-end/ 2026-02-11 2026-03-14 Obregón assassination and aftermath On 17 July 1928, President-Elect Obregón was assassinated by the Catholic militant José de León Toral.Krauze 1998 403 Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 71 An interim president would soon have to be inaugurated and serve until another election could be called.Krauze 1998 427-428 Calles held a meeting with thirty of the country's most prominent generals to get their support for the interim president being a civilian.Krauze 1998 426 For the position, Calles supported Emilio Portes Gil, his secretary of the interior.Quijano Torres 2012 191 Portes Gil was designated on 28 September by the Congress of the Union to succeed Calles. He assumed office on 1 December.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 72-73 During his brief presidency, Portes Gil ended the Cristero War and held a new presidential election.Emilio Portes Gil Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México – Unidad Bicentenario es http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=622 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20090624234401/http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=622 2009-06-24 2026-03-14 Following Obregón's assassination, Calles continued to exercise power and remained the most important political figure in the country. Calles' rule is sometimes known as the Maximato, deriving from his title of "Maximum Leader of the Mexican Revolution" (es Jefe Máximo de la Revolución Mexicana).Jiménez Susana El Movimiento Obrero desde Obregón (1920-1924) hasta el Maximato (1928-1936) 2011-03-24 Secretaría de Gobernación es http://www.sntsg.segob.gob.mx/en/Sindicato/El_Movimiento_Obrero_desde_Obregon_hasta_el_Maximato dead https://web.archive.org/web/20131111224013/http://www.sntsg.segob.gob.mx/en/Sindicato/El_Movimiento_Obrero_desde_Obregon_hasta_el_Maximato 2013-11-11 2026-03-12 Calles viewed the death of Obregón as an opportunity to reform Mexico's political system. In his final speech to Congress on 1 September 1928, he denounced caudillismo as preventing Mexico's development, and that with the death Obregón Mexico should become a nation of institutions rather than caudillos. He also announced that he would not seek reelection.Krauze 1998 426-427 Parties and candidates PNR and Ortiz Rubio thumb|Aarón Sáenz Garza enjoyed the support of many figures in the PNR to become the party's candidate, but Calles ultimately decided on Pascual Ortiz Rubio. Following the selection of Portes Gil as interim president, Calles began the process of forming a new political party, the National Revolutionary Party (es Partido Nacional Revolucionario, PNR). He at first served as president of the PNR's Organizing Committee, though he shortly thereafter resigned to hold unofficial leadership.Krauze 1998 428 The same day Portes Gil took office, the Organizing Committee published its first manifesto. On 20 January 1929, the party published their first program.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 73 Since late 1928, various figures within the revolutionary regime had supported the pre-candidacy of Aarón Sáenz Garza, who had held important positions during the presidencies of Obregón and Calles, and who had also been a key player in the negotiations to end the Cristero War. One of his most important supporters was the controversial anti-Catholic former Governor of Tabasco and Yucatán, Tomás Garrido Canabal. Martínez Hernández Walter Raúl de Jesús 2020 El movimiento de los Camisas Rojas: política, modernidad y religión en el Tabasco de Tomás Garrido Canabal, 1931-1935 https://ru.dgb.unam.mx/server/api/core/bitstreams/090a2089-0198-4bf0-a0fa-4937fb3e031d/content PhD Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 27 March 2026Theses are usually not considered very reliable. March 2026 However, Sáenz did not have the support of Calles, who instead decided to back Pascual Ortiz Rubio. Ortiz Rubio came from an aristocratic family in Michoacán,Starr-Hunt Jack Mexico to Pick New President 1929-08-23 Los Angeles Times 5 162317466 and was an engineer by profession. He participated in the Mexican Revolution, and became the governor of his home state, ultimately supporting the Plan of Agua Prieta. During the presidencies of Obregón and Calles, he served as Mexico's ambassador to Germany and Brazil.Oikión Solano 2008 163-164 Note #3Pascual Ortiz Rubio Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México – Unidad Bicentenario es http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=623 dead https://web.archive.org/web/20090624220059/http://www.bicentenario.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=623 2009-06-24 2026-03-16 On 26 December 1928, he returned to Mexico from Brazil on Calles' orders. He was reportedly going to be named Portes Gil's secretary of the interior, but he did not assume the office. Mexican historian Enrique Krauze wrote that Ortiz Rubio had an "impeccable record", but as he had been out of the country for several years, he had no personal political base. Another figure considered by contemporary mediaSucesiones, Destapes y Elecciones Presidenciales 1916-1988 (Vol. I) 1993 El Universal 135 968-6243-24-0 for the PNR’s presidential nomination was the Governor of Baja California, Abelardo L. Rodríguez; however, on 14 November 1928, he “disqualified” himself from participating in the race, claiming he lacked “the necessary preparation to assume leadership of the country, which has many and very delicate problems to resolve” and stating, “I have not sought nor do I seek” the presidency. Ironically, just under four years later, Rodríguez would assume the presidency following Ortiz Rubio’s resignation.Dulles John Watson Foster Yesterday in Mexico; a chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-1936. University of Texas Press Austin 1961 978-0-292-72972-8 484375April 2026 The PNR held its first national convention from 1 to 4 March 1929 in the city of Querétaro, wherein they would pick their presidential candidate.Oikión Solano 2008 164Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 74 Sáenz Garza accused the leadership of the nascent PNR of being biased in favor of Ortiz Rubio’s pre-candidacy, as well as of having replaced most of the delegations that were to attend the national convention. It was also rumored that Calles had waged a smear campaign against Sáenz Garza because the latter was a Presbyterian.https://protestantedigital.com/ginebra-viva/44478/aaron-saenz-garza-el-protestante-que-pudo-ser-presidente-de-mexico-i Aarón Sáenz Garza: el protestante que pudo ser presidente de México (I) 2022-06-19 Protestante Digital es For these reasons, Sáenz Garza announced on the first day of the convention that he and the delegations supporting him would withdraw from it.Sucesiones, Destapes y Elecciones Presidenciales 1916-1988 (Vol. I) 1 March 1929 El Universal 141-143 On March 4, the convention proceeded with the election of the PNR’s presidential candidate; although the party’s bylaws stipulated that the presidential candidate must be elected by secret ballot of the convention delegates,Zúñiga Aguilar Manuel Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR). Método y práctica en la selección de candidatos a puestos de elección popular (1929–1938) Estudios Políticos 2011 24 36 https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-16162011000300003 8 April 2026 numerous shouts in favor of Ortiz Rubio were heard when the assembly began the registration of candidates, and a speaker proposed that the nomination be decided by acclamation, which was accepted by the convention chairman, Filiberto Gómez es. Ortiz Rubio was then elected as the candidate by acclamation without a vote by the delegates.Sucesiones, Destapes y Elecciones Presidenciales 1916-1988 (Vol. I) 1993 El Universal 149-150 968-6243-24-0 That same day, the party was legally declared to exist. PNA and Vasconcelos José Vasconcelos hailed from a middle-class family from Oaxaca. He became a prominent philosopher and politician, participating in the Mexican Revolution. Post-revolution, he served as the rector of the National Autonomous University of Mexico from 1920 to 1921, and then as secretary of public education under Obregón from 1921 to 1924.Schütze 2007 145 In the latter post, he oversaw, among other projects, a widespread campaign to combat illiteracy and sponsored the Mexican muralist movement.Werner 2001 1454-1455 He sought to become the governor of Oaxaca in 1923, but Obregón refused to support him, and he ultimately resigned. Becoming an opposition politician, he spent several years lecturing abroad. He returned to Mexico upon Calles' promise of free elections for 1929. He subsequently launched an independent presidential campaign.Werner 2001 1455-1456 In 1927, the National Anti-Reelectionist Party (es Partido Nacional Antireeleccionista, PNA) declared Gen. Arnulfo R. Gómez es to be their candidate for the 1928 elections. However, later that year, he and Gen. Francisco R. Serrano es conspired to overthrow and imprison Obregón and Calles, but their effort failed and they were executed.Krauze 1998 401 Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 67-69 Galeana 2013 434 On 12 June 1929, PNA registered José Vasconcelos as their candidate. On 5 July, Vasconcelos was officially elected the PNA's candidate.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 75 The PNA's endorsement of Vasconcelos came late, as he was already several months into his campaign.Oikión Solano 2008 166 PCM and Rodríguez Triana thumb|right|PCM candidate Rodríguez Triana In late 1928Carr 1989 135 or early 1929,Hodges 1992 108 the Mexican Communist Party (es Partido Comunista Mexicano, PCM) founded the United Bloc of Workers and Peasants (es Bloque Unido de Obreros y Campesinos, BUOC),Referred to as the Bloque Nacional Obrero y Campesino by Barry Carr a coalition including the PCM's National Peasant League and various Magonist groups.Falcón García Morales 1986 184-185 On 25 January 1929, the group named Gen. Pedro Rodríguez Triana es as their presidential candidate. In his acceptance speech, Rodríguez Triana stated that he expected to lose the election.Triana Named by Agrarians 1929-01-26 Los Angeles Times 3 162162645 Rodríguez Triana was the first of only five presidential candidates that the PCM presented in its existence until its dissolution in the 1980s.Granados Chapa Miguel Ángel Miguel Ángel Granados Chapa Plaza Pública/La izquierda, a la cabeza 2006-06-30 Mural Guadalajara es 373613026 Campaign Campaign launches and Escobar Rebellion Vasconcelos began his campaign in Nogales, Sonora in January 1929, and from there he continued through the northeast to the center of the country. He also toured the United States to win the support of migrants. To prevent migrants from voting, the government closed the border with the United States during the election.Schütze 2007 146 Vasconcelos' supporters were primarily college students,Figueroa Anaya Enrique Las elecciones de 1929 2016-06-28 Reconoce MX es http://www.reconoce.mx/las-elecciones-de-1929/ https://web.archive.org/web/20160703171123/http://www.reconoce.mx/las-elecciones-de-1929/ dead 2016-07-03 2018-08-19 from urban areas, and members of the middle class.Alanis Enciso 2005 1162 Krauze described Vasconcelos' campaign as "one of the most impressive and broadly inclusive democratic campaigns in the history of Mexico".Krauze 1998 429 However, his campaign was also criticized for focusing too much on urban centers instead of the rural areasInstituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática La revolución mexicana: atlas histórico 1991 119 https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/historicos/2104/702825460167/702825460167_13.pdf (where 66.5% of Mexico's population lived at the time).Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática Indicadores sociodemográficos de México (1930-2000) 2001 23 https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenido/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/historicos/2104/702825493875/702825493875_1.pdf thumb|right|150px|Contribution bonds for the Vasconcelos campaign On 3 March, a group of generals led by José Gonzalo Escobar launched a rebellion against Portes Gil's government and denounced Ortiz Rubio's candidacy. By April the government had successfully put down the rebellion.Alanis Enciso 2005 1161-1162 Galeana 2013 336-337 In contrast to Vasconcelos, Ortiz Rubio waited until the Escobar Rebellion was put down to begin touring the country. Ortiz Rubio began his campaign on 10 May 1929 with a banquet in Xochimilco. He began his tour of the country in Hidalgo on 26 May. There, he claimed to have the support of "genuine popular elements", and described the PNR as a symbol of force, energy, peace, and harmony. He also said that the campaign would not be violent, and said that his opponents would see that the election was: ... the most diaphanous demonstration that we are in perfect conditions to contend in civic struggles, in the same way that the most advanced peoples of the Earth do. Gilberto Valenzuela, Ambassador to the United Kingdom, returned to Mexico in late 1928 and expressed his interest in running in the 1929 presidential election. Having broken up with Calles for good, he began a campaign tour of the northwestern part of the country in early 1929.Sucesiones, Destapes y Elecciones Presidenciales 1916-1988 (Vol. I) 1 March 1929 El Universal 140-141 He later supported the ill-fated Escobarista Rebellion;Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática La revolución mexicana: atlas histórico 1991 118 https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/historicos/2104/702825460167/702825460167_13.pdf following the rebels' defeat, Valenzuela called off his campaign and went into exile in the United States.Villa Guillermo W. LICENCIADO GILBERTO VALENZUELA "Abogado Internacionalista, Patriota hombre de Estado" https://www.historiadehermosillo.com/htdocs/ARTICULOS/GVALENZUELA.htm Historia de Hermosillo 1 April 2026 Platforms In July 1929 Calles left Mexico for Europe for nearly five months, announcing that "the future of Mexico is guranteed".Krauze 1998 429-430 Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 76 Simultaneously, Portes Gil negotiated an end to the Cristero War as the Cristeros were considering supporting Vasconcelos.Krauze 1998 430 Vasconcelos himself expressed frustration at the Cristeros' surrender, as he had been counting on their support for an eventual rebellion after the election (which he later implied to have already planned beforehand)."note" (Translated from Spanish) The news of the Cristeros’ forced surrender sent a chill down my spine. I saw in it the hand of Morrow, who was thus depriving us of any base for the rebellion that a rejection of the election results would logically entail.José Vasconcelos (1957-1962). Obras Completas (Vol. II), p. 162, cited in Jean Meyer (2001). La revolución de los años veinte: Obregón y Calles (Chapter 5 of "Historia de México"), Crítica, p. 228. During his campaign, Vasconcelos argued that the military was too large for the country's needs, and called for a sharp reduction in military spending.Lorey 1997 49 Vasconcelos distributed copies of the Iliad to supporters, which the PNR's newspaper, El Nacional Revolucionario, criticized, stating "a country cannot be governed with literary teachings... the PNR does not distribute The Iliad... but rather 35 million hectares", referring to Obregón and Calles' policies of land redistribution. The PNR's first declaration of principles declared that they would "help and stimulate gradually the Mexican woman's access to the activities of civic life" but did not promise equality of political rights. By contrast, the PNA endorsed women's suffrage and according to Mexican historian Gabriela Cano Ortega, a high percentage of their supporters were women.Cano 1991 283 Rodríguez Triana's platform called for the creation of workers and peasants' soviets, a replacement of the judiciary with "people's courts", arming peasants, establishing a minimum wage, putting a cap on salaries for public officials, and worker control of land and factories. Results The election was held on 17 November 1929.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 76 Results were announced on 28 November.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 77 Pascual Ortiz Rubio National Revolutionary Party 1947848 José Vasconcelos National Anti-Reelectionist Party 110979 #0000FF Pedro Rodríguez Triana es Mexican Communist Party 23279 Nohlen, Ramírez Rancaño,Ramírez Rancaño 1977 291 Museo del ObjetoMuseo del Objeto 2018 26 Results by state StateOrtiz RubioVasconcelosTrianaAguascalientes16,5581,0510Baja California10,8699980Campeche12,027431305Chiapas59,1702470Chihuahua52,58210,4503,616Coahuila58,85911,6892,684Colima10,5324370Distrito Federal117,1491,5172,124Durango30,2225,66345Guanajuato144,50913,2190Guerrero40,8552160Hidalgo120,7351524,943Jalisco121,8597,9140Mexico131,11700Michoacán137,02511,457379Morelos14,2245851,520Nayarit26,60500Nuevo León36,1145871,114Oaxaca138,3193940Puebla90,0191,8470Querétaro16,9138190Quintana Roo1,3001200San Luis Potosí90,0123150Sinaloa33,21110,5220Sonora20,1428,400715Tabasco18,0492301,114Tamaulipas58,8133,2470Tlaxcala24,6275240Veracruz144,24313,9483,400Yucatán91,07700Zacatecas80,1124,0001,320Total1,947,848110,97923,279Source: Ramírez Rancaño Aftermath thumb|right|President-elect Ortiz Rubio on the cover of Time magazine, 30 December 1929 Electoral fraud accusations The opposition candidate José Vasconcelos refused to recognize the official results, claiming that a massive electoral fraud had taken place, and proclaimed his "Plan de Guaymas es", urging the Mexican people to rebel against the alleged fraud. His call to rebellion went unheeded; he was subsequently jailed, and after being released he moved to the United States. Several modern authors, such as Enrique Krauze, have arrived at the conclusion that the 1929 elections were indeed rigged and Ortiz Rubio probably lost the election. In subsequent decades, the National Revolutionary Party, later renamed Institutional Revolutionary Party, continued resorting to electoral fraud to perpetuate itself in power.Gil Olmos José Un siglo de fraudes 2013-09-11 Proceso es https://www.proceso.com.mx/352522/un-siglo-de-fraudes live https://web.archive.org/web/20201107101628/https://www.proceso.com.mx/opinion/2013/9/11/un-siglo-de-fraudes-123305.html 2020-11-07 2018-08-19Ramales Osorio Martín Carlos México: Fraudes electorales, autoritarismo y represión: Del Estado benefactor al Estado neoliberal July 2009 eumed.net es http://www.eumed.net/rev/cccss/05/mcro.htm live https://web.archive.org/web/20250709095019/https://www.eumed.net/rev/cccss/05/mcro.htm 2025-07-09 2018-08-19 Historian Verónica Oikión Solano described the election as, contratry to Ortiz Rubio's claim, "[not] diaphanous, in any sense". Subsequent political developments Ortiz Rubio became president on 5 February 1930.Aguilar Casas Serrano Álvarez 2012 77 Quijano Torres 2012 180 Calles served as his Secretary of war and the navy from 1931 to 1932.Quijano Torres 2012 181 Ortiz Rubio was the victim of an assassination attempt on the day of his inauguration, which left him greatly disturbed for the remainder of his presidency. Although he was supposed to have been president until 1 December 1934, he resigned on 2 September 1932 in protest over Calles' excessive interference on his government.March 2026 Notes note References Bibliography Aguilar Casas Elsa Serrano Álvarez Pablo Martínez Ocampo, Lourdes Posrevolución y estabilidad. Cronología (1917-1967) 2012 Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México es https://inehrm.gob.mx/work/models/inehrm/Resource/437/1/images/posrevolucion_estabilidad.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20250929003617/https://inehrm.gob.mx/work/models/inehrm/Resource/437/1/images/posrevolucion_estabilidad.pdf 2025-09-29 978-607-7916-65-9 Alanis Enciso Fernando Saúl De factores de inestabilidad nacional a elementos de consolidación del Estado posrevolucionario: los exiliados mexicanos en Estados Unidos, 1929-1933 April 2005 Historia Mexicana es 54 4 1155-1205 25139609 Cano Gabriela Gabriela Cano Ortega Las feministas en campaña: la primera mitad del siglo XX September 1991 Debate Feminista es 4 269-292 42624015 Carr Barry El Partido Comunista y la movilización agraria en la Laguna, 1920-1940: ¿una alianza obrero-campesina? April 1989 Revista Mexicana de Sociología es Tappan Martha 51 2 115-149 3540681 Falcón Romana García Morales Soledad La semilla en el surco: Adalberto Tejeda y el radicalismo en Veracruz, (1883-1960) 1986 El Colegio de México es 968-12-0332-1 j.ctv26d906 free Galeana Patricia Generales de la revolucón, tomo I: A-L 2013 es Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México https://www.inehrm.gob.mx/work/models/inehrm/Resource/305/1/images/dic_grales_rev_t1.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20250710222737/https://www.inehrm.gob.mx/work/models/inehrm/Resource/305/1/images/dic_grales_rev_t1.pdf 2025-07-10 978-607-9276-48-5 Hodges Donald C. Donald C. Hodges The Political Heirs of Ricardo Flores Magón 1992 Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 17 33 95-126 10.1080/08263663.1992.10816672 41799789 Krauze Enrique Enrique Krauze Mexico: Biography of Power, A History of Modern Mexico, 1810-1996 1998 1997 Harper Perennial Heifetz Hank Hank Heifetz 978-0-06-092917-6 Lorey David E. The Revolutionary Festival in Mexico: November 20 Celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s July 1997 The Americas Cambridge University Press 54 1 39-82 1007502 Museo del Objeto del Objeto Ciudadanía, democracia y propaganda en México, 1910-2018 2018 National Electoral Institute Mexico City es https://www.google.com/books/edition/CIUDADAN%C3%8DA_DEMOCRACIA_Y_PROPAGANDA_ELEC/2SKADwAAQBAJ?hl=en Museo del Objeto 2018 Nohlen Dieter Dieter Nohlen Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I 2005 Oxford University Press 10.1093/oso/9780199283576.001.0001 978-0-19-928357-6 58051010 Oikión Solano Verónica Pascual Ortiz Rubio: ¿un presidente a la medida del Jefe Máximo? 2008 Gobernantes mexicanos II Fowler Will Fondo de Cultura Económica es 978-968-16-8370-2 Quijano Torres Manuel Relación de gabinetes, 1821-2012 200 Años de Administración Pública en México, Tomo III: Los Gabinetes en México, 1824-2012 2012 Instituto Nacional de Administración Pública es 98-364 https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/7/3360/10.pdf live https://web.archive.org/web/20240704022737/https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/7/3360/10.pdf 2024-07-04 978-607-9026-20-2 Ramírez Rancaño Mario Estadísticas electorales: presidenciales January 1977 Revista Mexicana de Sociología es 39 1 271-299 3539798 Schütze Stephanie "La nación mexicana Ilega hasta donde estamos los mexicanos". 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