19th-century glassmaking innovations in the United States

none thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Jamestown glasshouse|Decanter circa 1820s–1830s, Bakewell, Page, & Bakewell Very few 19th-century glassmaking innovations in the United States happened at the beginning of the century. Only ten glass manufacturers are thought to have been operating in 1800. High-quality glassware was imported from England, and glassmaking knowledge was kept secret. England controlled a key ingredient for producing high–quality glassware and kept its price high—making it difficult for American glass manufacturers to compete price-wise. European glassmakers with the knowledge to produce high–quality glassware were, in some cases, smuggled to the United States. Eventually the American glass industry grew, and the second half of the century saw numerous innovations. The two most significant innovations of the 19th century were mechanical pressing and a new formula for high quality glass. Mechanical pressing increased productivity and allowed more of the public to afford glassware. It was developed simultaneously at several locations during the 1820s. Among those that received pressing-related patents were John P. Bakewell of Bakewell and Company; Henry Whitney and Enoch Robinson of New England Glass Company; and Phineas C. Dummer, George Dummer, and James Maxwell of the Jersey City Glass Works. A new formula for glass, developed by William Leighton Sr. at J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company, lowered costs and allowed even more people to afford glassware. Many mechanical innovations in the last half of the century involved the procedure for melting ingredients, cooling (annealing) newly made glass, and automation. By the end of the century a new machine designed by John H. Lubbers began to make many glassblowers obsolete, and work was being conducted on a bottle-making machine by Michael J. Owens that eventually revolutionized the bottle industry. Preliminary work by Irving Wightman Colburn had started that would change the way window glass was made. Owens and Colburn worked together to finish this new window glass process during the 20th century. A new formula for ruby glass, which did not need gold as an additive, was developed by Nicholas Kopp Jr. in the 1890s around the time of the start of the American auto industry. Two fathers 19th century glassmaking in the United States 19th century glass categories in the United States thumb|upright=1.0|alt=old man with white hair and dressed formally|Benjamin Bakewell, the father of the American flint glass industry Glass is made by starting with a batch of ingredients, melting it, forming the glass product, and gradually cooling it.The batch of ingredients is dominated by sand, which contains silica.How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand. Corning https://www.corning.com/worldwide/en/innovation/materials-science/glass/how-glass-made.html July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205218/https://www.corning.com/worldwide/en/innovation/materials-science/glass/how-glass-made.html live Other ingredients such as soda ash, potash, and lime are added.Skrabec 2007 25 The batch is placed inside a pot or tank that is heated by a furnace to roughly 3090 °F (1700 °C). In the glass-making industry, the melted batch is called "metal".Shotwell 2002 343 The metal is typically shaped into the glass product (other than window glass) by either a glassblower or pressing it into a mold.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 45 Window glass production during the 19th century involved blowing a long cylinder and flattening it.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 20 All glass products must then be cooled gradually (annealed) after the product is shaped, or else it will become brittle and possibly break.Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass Corning Museum of Glass https://www.cmog.org/article/annealing-glass July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205217/https://www.cmog.org/article/annealing-glass live Annealing was originally conducted in the United States using a kiln that was sealed with the fresh glass inside, heated, and gradually cooled.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 48 Kilns were eventually replaced by a conveyer oven called a lehr.Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr Corning Museum of Glass https://allaboutglass.cmog.org/definition/lehr July 5, 2023 July 5, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230705205217/https://allaboutglass.cmog.org/definition/lehr live Note In 1800, the United States is thought to have had no more than a ten operating glass factories. Most of the nation's glass products came from Europe.Dyer Gross 2001 23 Lead ore, known as red lead, was a key ingredient necessary to make high-quality glassware, but England controlled the world's known supply.Skrabec 2011 19Red lead was necessary to make brilliant molten glass suitable for cutting.Knittle 2009 275 Note The United States Embargo Act of 1807, and the War of 1812, made red lead extremely difficult to acquire. After the war England kept the price of red lead high, and dumped low-priced glass products in the United States. This drove some American glass companies into bankruptcy. One of the few successful American glass companies was the New England Glass Company, which was incorporated in 1818 and led by Deming Jarves—who has been called the "father of the American glass industry."Skrabec 2011 18, 20 Using assistance from the Harvard University library and a British engineer named James B. Barnes, Jarves developed a way to produce red lead from domestic sources of lead oxide.Skrabec 2011 20 Jarves' red lead was good enough that his New England Glass Company was exporting cut crystal glassware to Europe by 1825.Skrabec 2011 21 Jarves smuggled European glassmaking talent to America at a time when it was forbidden by European countries. However, the glassmakers themselves kept their techniques and recipes secret. If a company lost a skilled glassworker, it was possible that certain types of glass could no longer be made at the glassworks. Jarves began to keep records of glass recipes and procedures. This gave him more control over the intellectual rights of his company. New England Glass Company was a "great innovator under the leadership of Deming Jarves" and Jarves "revolutionized the American glass industry".Skrabec 2011 18, 21 Benjamin Bakewell founded a glass manufacturing company in Pittsburgh in 1808. This company, which began as Bakewell & Ensell, became Pittsburgh's best known glass manufacturer.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 144 It changed its name many times, but always had Bakewell as part of the name.Pittsburgh's Bakewell glass works had nine different names. From 1808 to 1809 it was named Bakewell & Ensell; and from 1809 to 1813 it was named Benjamin Bakewell & Company. From 1813 to 1827 it was named Bakewell, Page & Bakewell; and from 1827 to 1832 was named Bakewell, Page & Bakewells. From 1832 to 1836 it was named Bakewells & Anderson; and from 1836 to 1842 it was named Bakewells & Company. The Pears family became involved and the company was named Bakewell & Pears from 1842 to 1844; Bakewell, Pears & Company from 1844 to 1880; and Bakewell, Pears Company, Ltd. from 1880 to 1882. Note Among the names used were Bakewell, Page & Bakewell; and Bakewell, Pears & Company. The Bakewell and Pears families were involved with the company for most of its existence, and Benjamin Page was an important member of the company in its early years. Bakewell needed skilled glassworkers early in the company's existence, so English glass men were smuggled to Pittsburgh.Jarves 1854 44 The company received its supply of red lead from Deming Jarves. Bakewell became well known for its lead crystal glass, and also made engraved and cut glassware. Other products, such as window glass and bottles, were also made. Jarves considered Benjamin Bakewell the "father of the flint-glass [crystal] business in this country".Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 144; Jarves 1854 45; Palmer 1979 5Among companies with ties to Bakewell are Adams & Co.; Atterbury & Co.; Bryce Brothers; Challinor Taylor; and McCulley & Co.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 142–143, 145, 151 Note In the 1820s and 1830s, Bakewell glassware was purchased for the White House by presidents James Monroe and Andrew Jackson. 19th century innovations The mechanical innovations, and other innovations, listed below are from an essay published in the December 1920 edition of Scientific American. The essay was titled Modern Glass-Making, and it was written by E. Ward Tillotson, assistant director of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research.Tillotson 1920 351 The essay contains a list titled Some Notable Developments in the Glass Industry.Tillotson 1920 354 Some of these innovations were first developed in the United States, while others were already in operation in foreign countries. During the 19th century and earlier, European countries (and their skilled glassworkers) tried to keep glassmaking methods secret—causing some processes to need to be rediscovered in the United States. The leading manufacturers (and exporters) of European glass, based on statistics from near 1880, were England, France, Belgium, Germany, and Austria–Hungry.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 69Each European country had a specialty. England was known for its lead crystal glassware. Englishman George Ravenscroft has been credited with refining the formula for crystal during the 1670s.MacLeod 1987 777, 802 France was known for its art glass and plate glass—including stained glass windows, while Belgium made the best window glass in the world. The German states were known for mirrors, low cost tableware, vases, and ruby glass. Johann Kunckel developed ruby glass in 1679.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 70 The Bohemian portion of Austria–Hungry was known for its art glass, including its engraving and decoration of its glassware. Note William Leighton Jr., chemist at J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company, wrote a newspaper article in 1880 that called pressing and the new soda-lime glass formula the two great steps in American glassmaking.William Leighton Jr. succeeded his father as chemist at the Hobbs, Brockunier and Company glass factory. He was responsible for most of the colors and glass formulas used at the plant, and held patents for several glass patterns and mechanical innovations. He later was a partner in the glass manufacturer Dalzell, Gilmore & Leighton Company.Bredehoft Bredehoft 1997 27–28 Note Professor Warren C. Scoville of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in an essay titled Growth of the American Glass Industry to 1880, considered the five outstanding glassmaking innovations up to that time to be 1) mechanical pressing; 2) the new soda-lime (a.k.a. lime) glass formula; 3) the shift from wood to coal for fuel; 4) the beginning of plate glass manufacturing; and 5) the gas furnace.Scoville 1944 211The use of coal for fuel in glassmaking began in the 18th century in the Philadelphia area and Pittsburgh.Palmer 1979a 107 Tillotson's list did not include the shift to coal. Note Mechanical Innovations thumb|upright=1.25|alt=top view of bowl with log cabin, foamer, glassworks designs|Pressed glass by New England Glass Co.Los Angeles County Museum of Artthumb|upright=1.25|alt=magazine advertisement for importers of Siemens glass production products|Siemens glassmaking advertisement 1883thumb|upright=1.25|alt=magazine advertisement for Gill gas furnace of Pittsburgh|Gill Furnace advertisement 1883thumb|upright=1.25|alt=fancy glassware including a bowl, pitcher, cup, and goblet|Riverside Glass Works 1896 advertisementthumb|upright=1.25|alt=long somewhat flat oven|Flat glass lehr circa 1920sthumb|upright=1.25|alt=drawing of an apparatus for drawing glass|Drawing from Lubbers patent Pressed glass: The most important innovation for the 1820s was the development of machine pressed glass—pressing glass into a mold. Although pressing glass by hand had long existed, mechanical pressing of glass did not exist until the 1820s—and it was an American invention.Revi 1964 1; Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 42 John P. Bakewell of Bakewell, Page & Bakewell patented a pressing method for making glass furniture knobs in 1825.Shotwell 2002 444 Henry Whitney and Enoch Robinson of New England Glass Company received a pressing–related patent in 1826; and Phineas C. Dummer, George Dummer, and James Maxwell of the Jersey City Glass Works received pressing and mold–related patents in 1828. The use of a machine to press glass enabled two workers to produce four times as much glassware as a team of three or four glassblowers.Zerwick 1990 79 Mechanical pressing of glass reduced the time and labor necessary to make glass products, which lowered costs and made glass products available to more of the public.Pressed Glass: 1825–1925 Corning Museum of Glass https://info.cmog.org/publication/pressed-glass-1825-1925 March 23, 2024 March 23, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240323164616/https://info.cmog.org/publication/pressed-glass-1825-1925 live An 1884 U.S. government report considered mechanical pressing and a new formula for glass to be the two great advances in American glassmaking during the 19th century.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 79 One author called mechanical pressing "the greatest contribution of America to glassmaking, and the most important development since the Romans discovered glassblowing...." Regenerative pot furnace: In 1865 Pittsburgh's O'Hara Glass Works of James B. Lyons and Company installed the first regenerative pot furnace for use with producer gas. These furnaces save on fuel expense by using waste heat to separately heat the air and gas prior to burning. A more intense heat is produced, which reduces the time for melting the batch.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 36 First used in Europe, makers of these types of furnaces were Siemens, Nicholson, and Gill.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 37 The O'Hara Glass Works in Pittsburgh was the first to use a Siemens regenerative pot furnace, but experienced difficulty utilizing the new technology.Dixon 1921 92–93 Continuous tank: In March 1880 the first successful continuous tank used for the production of glass in the United States began operations.Hasbrouck 1909 758Tillotson lists the year as 1879, which is the year the company was organized and may have begun testing.Tillotson 1920 354; Hasbrouck 1909 758 Note The success was realized by the Anglo–American Glass Company, which was organized in July 1879 in Poughkeepsie, New York. The company was reorganized as a corporation in November 1880 as the Poughkeepsie Glass Works. The plant's major product was bottles. Raw materials for the glass were continuously fed into the furnace, and the melting was continuous. The glass made using this methodology could be only one color.Shotwell 2002 549 Natural gas for melting glass: Natural gas began being used in the United States to melt glass batch during the early 1880s.Dixon 1921 94 The Bradford Window Glass Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania, was the first user—beginning in 1883.Tillotson lists the year as 1882. Note The first try using this fuel was not successful, and it was not until 1885 the furnace was configured to use natural gas effectively. In 1884 the Riverside Glass Works of Wellsburg, West Virginia, was the first flint glass manufacturer to achieve success with natural gas.Dixon 1921 94; Tillotson 1920 354 This led to a gas boom in Northwest Ohio and another gas boom in East Central Indiana, where glass manufacturers were attracted by the discovery low–cost natural gas in those regions. Waste and mismanagement caused the natural gas to be depleted in less than 20 years.Dixon 1921 94–95 Prepressed blank: In 1882 Philip Arbogast received a patent for "Manufacture of Glassware" that involved using a machine to press the neck of a bottle. United States 260,819 Philip Arbogast Patent Manufacture of Glassware July 11, 1882 August 11, 1881 https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/cc/20/5c/d910fa73e59fed/US260819.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240123215325/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/cc/20/5c/d910fa73e59fed/US260819.pdf January 23, 2024 This was an important step in automating the production of glass bottles. Arbogast sold his patent and did not build the machine specified in his patent, but others used his idea.One Step Closer: The Iron Glassblower Corning Museum of Glass https://www.cmog.org/article/one-step-closer-iron-glassblower January 23, 2024 January 23, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240123215325/https://www.cmog.org/article/one-step-closer-iron-glassblower live Window glass: Two advances were made in window glassmaking during the 1880s. In 1882 Cleon Tondeur received a patent for what he called a "Glass–Annealing Furnace". United States 258,156 Cleon Tondeur Patent Glass–Annealing Furnace May 16, 1882 February 27, 1882 https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/96/10/f9/21ec2f135a3532/US258156.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240125194038/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/96/10/f9/21ec2f135a3532/US258156.pdf January 25, 2024 This was the first continuous lehr (also spelled "leer") for window glass.Thomas Atterbury patented a lehr for glassware other than flat glass in 1864. It was called a continuous mechanical annealing oven and had a circular design.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 46–47 Later innovations, including work by Theodore Zeller, led to a linear design for the lehr that is still used today.Madarasz Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 47 Note The sheets of glass were "received by the furnace" (the start of the lehr), and "discharged by their exit ends" (the finished end of the lehr) "out of the tunnel without opening the furnace or tunnel...." A 1915 report noted that continuous lehrs had replaced intermittent kilns "to a large extent", and the "Tondeur rod lehr is the type which is commonly used today [1915]".Rice 1915 126–127 The second innovation for window glassmaking in the 1880s was the use of a continuous tank for window glass. This was introduced in 1884 by the United Glass Works in Streator, Illinois, according to Tillotson. Another source cites the Chambers and McKee Window Glass Company of Jeanette, Pennsylvania, as the first user of a continuous melting tank furnace in the United States. The start year for this factory's innovation was 1889, and the continuous tank helped mechanize window glass production.Kapsch 1990 44 Flint glass melted in tank: In 1898 Charles H. Runyon of the Keystone Glass Company in Rochester, Pennsylvania, was the first in the United States to melt the batch for flint glass in a tank.The "flint glass" used herein is not optical glass, but rather glass that uses lead as an important ingredient—now commonly called crystal.Shotwell 2002 184 Note A second source calls the Rochester company operating at that time (1897–1905) by the name of Keystone Tumbler Company.Shotwell 2002 278 Continuous lehr for plate glass: The Marsh Plate Glass Works of Walton, Pennsylvania, has been listed as the innovator for a continuous lehr for plate glass. George A. Marsh of the Marsh Plate Glass Company applied for multiple glass–related patents during 1898 that were granted in 1899: "Table for Holding Plate–glass", "Apparatus for Grinding, Smoothing, and Polishing Glass", "Apparatus for Holding Glass", and "Glass–holding Table".United States 631,857 Patent Table for Holding Plate Glass August 29, 1899 February 7, 1898 George A. Marsh https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/c6/72/63/d00f5b10f21175/US631857.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240127170640/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/c6/72/63/d00f5b10f21175/US631857.pdf January 27, 2024 ; United States 631,898 Patent Apparatus for Grinding, Smoothing, and Polishing Glass August 29, 1899 February 7, 1898 George A. Marsh https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/f9/83/66/14be0fb93f4a98/US631898.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240127170640/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/f9/83/66/14be0fb93f4a98/US631898.pdf January 27, 2024 ; United States 631,855 Patent Apparatus for Holding Glass August 29, 1899 February 7, 1898 George A. Marsh https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/7d/ae/8b/210b69cd7b4ad5/US631855.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240127170640/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/7d/ae/8b/210b69cd7b4ad5/US631855.pdf January 27, 2024 ; United States 631,856 Patent Glass Holding Table August 29, 1899 February 7, 1898 George A. Marsh https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/91/a6/1e/be35f825dcfe12/US631856.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240127170640/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/91/a6/1e/be35f825dcfe12/US631856.pdf January 27, 2024 The Marsh Plate Glass Company built a plant to use the new technology, which was purchased by Pittsburg Plate Glass Company before 1901.North United States Census Office 1902 962 In addition to the two just–mentioned companies, the Edward Ford Plate Glass Company became involved with continuous lehrs for plate glass in 1900. In 1909 W. L. Clause, president of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company, testified before Congress that "...it is a matter of common knowledge that the Marsh Plate Glass Works were a failure and that the works have never operated successfully. The lehr referred to was a prophecy rather than a realization."Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives 1909 7570, 7572 He also added his company's development of a successful lehr took years of time. Fire polishing cut glass blanks: In 1899 Michael J. Owens introduced a machine for fire polishing glass. Owens and Amos R. Wilson applied for a patent on a "Machine for Fire–Finishing Glass Articles" on June 24, 1899, and received the patent on September 10, 1901. United States 682,595 Michael J. Owens Amos R. Wilson Patent Machine for Fire–Finishing Glass Articles September 10, 1901 June 24, 1899 https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/70/42/68/52a694a6a4a12f/US682595.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240127204832/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/70/42/68/52a694a6a4a12f/US682595.pdf January 27, 2024 Automatic bottle machine: In 1895 Edward Libbey formed the Toledo Glass Company, where Michael Owens would work on creating an automatic bottle machine.Skrabec 2007a 75 His first success occurred in 1899 when he developed a machine that could produce a four-ounce (29.57ml) petroleum jelly jar. Producing the long neck of a bottle required more research. His first commercial bottle making machine was produced from 1904 to 1908.Skrabec 2007a 85 Although the machine replaced glassblowers, it created more jobs because it increased demand for bottles.Skrabec 2007a 9 The uniformity in bottle size led to new types of bottles: beer bottles, milk bottles, and baby bottles.Skrabec 2007a 84 Machine drawn window glass: John H. Lubbers created a glass blowing machine. Experiments began in 1896.Linton 1917 8359 The machine withdrew the molten glass and blew a cylinder as the first step in the Cylinder method for making window glass—replacing the task of highly skilled and highly-paid glassblowers.Linton 1917 8358, 8360 An application for a patent on the Lubbers machine was filed during 1900, and a patent for "Apparatus for Drawing Glass" was issued in 1902. United States 702,013 John H. Lubbers Patent Apparatus for Drawing Glass June 10, 1902 September 28, 1900 https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/b2/19/19/49a35691148abf/US702013.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20240124203411/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/b2/19/19/49a35691148abf/US702013.pdf January 24, 2024 American Window Glass Company, a trust with many factories, used the machine at various locations while Lubbers continued to improve his invention over the next decade.Unlisted 1917 1 A decade later, human glassblowers that made approximately $2,000 (US 2000 1913 eq) for nine months of work were replaced by machine operators that made about $600 (US 600 1913 eq) over the same time. Glass produced by machine could total 50 boxes over an eight-hour shift, while human glassblowers could produce only 60 boxes in six days.Unlisted 1913 81 Other Innovations thumb|upright=0.8|alt=lamp with a shiny orange shade|Favrile oil lamp and shade thumb|upright=0.8|alt=deep red glass pitcher|Ruby glass pitcher Plate glass: In his list of notable developments in the glass industry, Tillotson lists an unnamed glass works in Williamsburg, New York (a neighborhood in Brooklyn), as the site of the first plate glass factory in America—with a date of 1857. The works was put out of business by competition from Belgium and France. In August 1857 the U.S. Manufacturing and Polishing Plate Glass Company was formed in New York for the purpose of plate glass manufacturing. It had not opened a glass works, although it had been conducting experiments.Domestic Plate Glass Buffalo Courier Express (Ancestry) 2 August 31, 1857 The Company proposes to manufacture 2,000 square feet of 3-8 inch plate glass per day.... In 1882 Captain John B. Ford, after several failures, started the first commercially successful plate glass company in the United States.Wilson 2001 145 Production began in 1884, and the company name was changed to Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company after an investor bought a significant number of shares of company stock.Wilson 2001 146 Lime–flint glass: In 1864 William Leighton Sr., a former employee of New England Glass company now working for J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company, conducted experiments making high quality glass without lead. In December he used a formula consisting of bicarbonate of soda instead of soda ash. His formula was similar to the long-lost soda-lime formula used many years earlier in Europe. The glass made using this formula had good enough quality that the company could compete in the high-end of the glassware market.Skrabec 2011 27–28; Weeks United States Census Office 1884 79 The ingredients used to make the glass were lower-cost than those used to make lead glass. In addition, the glass hardened faster, meaning the workforce was forced to shape or press it quicker—lowering costs for labor in addition to lower costs for ingredients.Weeks United States Census Office 1884 79; Dyer Gross 2001 30–31 This new formula for glass quickly replaced the recipe consisting of lead at most American factories specializing in glassware.McKearin McKearin 1966 395 Wire glass: Frank Shuman developed a process for embedding wire in glass, which functioned as reinforcement and made the glass safer. This type of glass, safety glass, was used in overhead lighting and where it was wise to protect people from the possible impacts of shattering glass.Wilson Wahl 1894 161–162 Shuman received two patents in 1892, and they were the only United States patents for embedding wire netting in glass at the time.Wilson Wahl 1894 164–165 Favrile glass: Louis Comfort Tiffany developed Favrile glass around 1892. It has an iridescent surface created by spraying hot glass with metallic salts that were absorbed into the glass.Shotwell 2002 560–561 Tiffany trademarked the name "Favrile" in 1894, and it is derived from the word "fabrile"—which is the old English word for hand–wrought.Tiffany Treasures: Favrile Glass from Special Collections Corning Museum of Glass https://whatson.cmog.org/exhibitions-galleries/tiffany-treasures-favrile-glass-special-collections January 26, 2024 January 26, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240126175855/https://whatson.cmog.org/exhibitions-galleries/tiffany-treasures-favrile-glass-special-collections live Favrile glass is displayed in museums such as the Corning Museum of Glass, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Rhode Island School of Design Museum.Tiffany Treasures: Favrile Glass from Special Collections Corning Museum of Glass https://whatson.cmog.org/exhibitions-galleries/tiffany-treasures-favrile-glass-special-collections January 26, 2024 January 26, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240126175855/https://whatson.cmog.org/exhibitions-galleries/tiffany-treasures-favrile-glass-special-collections live; Vase - Designed by Louis C. Tiffany The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/9480 January 26, 2024 January 26, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240126175855/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/9480 live; Louis Comfort Tiffany - Favrile Vase Rhode Island School of Design Museum https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/favrile-vase-19911761 January 26, 2024 November 17, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231117093538/https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/favrile-vase-19911761 live Selenium ruby glass: During 1894, Nicholas Kopp discovered a formula for making ruby (deep red) glass using selenium instead of gold.Shively 1924 371 The new formula replaced the older gold–based formula, and it came as the growing automobile industry increased demand for ruby glass. The older formula, which was based on gold as an essential ingredient, had been lost (to Americans) until Thomas Leighton of New England Glass re–discovered it in 1848. Ruby glass, also known as cranberry glass, was originally developed in Prussia during the 1600s.Skrabec 2011 25 Notes Footnotes Note 30em Citations 30em References 30em Bredehoft Neila M. Bredehoft Thomas H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Co., Glass: Identification and Value Guide Collector Books 1997 Paducah, KY 37340501 978-0-89145-780-0 Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives Tariff Hearings - Sixtieth Congress - February 10, 1909 Government Printing Office 1909 Washington, D.C. https://books.google.com/books?id=EiswAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Marsh+Plate+Glass%22&pg=PA7570 February 22, 2024 January 27, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240127182317/https://books.google.com/books?id=EiswAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7570&dq=%22Marsh+Plate+Glass%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9r6vjjf6DAxUuFlkFHRC_Aj84ChDoAXoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Marsh%20Plate%20Glass%22&f=false live Dixon H.L. February 1921 Ancient and Modern Methods of Glass Manufacture https://books.google.com/books?id=RdYHAQAAMAAJ&dq=bradford+glass+bradford+pennsylvania+natural+gas&pg=PA94 Westerville, Ohio American Ceramic Society Journal of the American Ceramic Society 4 2 85–96 1479639 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1921.tb18117.x January 23, 2024 January 23, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240123205149/https://books.google.com/books?id=RdYHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA94&dq=bradford+glass+bradford+pennsylvania+natural+gas&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-yfDAr_SDAxXWEFkFHUkfDvMQ6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=bradford%20glass%20bradford%20pennsylvania%20natural%20gas&f=false live Dyer Davis Gross Daniel The Generations of Corning: The Life and Times of a Global Corporation Oxford University Press 2001 Oxford 45437326 978-0-19514-095-8 Hasbrouck Frank The History of Dutchess County, New York S.A. Matthieu 1909 Poughkeepsie, New York https://archive.org/details/cu31924028853327 Jarves Deming Reminiscences of Glass–making Eastburn's Press Boston, Massachusetts 1854 14284772 https://books.google.com/books?id=MEsNAAAAYAAJ&q=Deming+Jarves 2024-02-22 2023-11-15 https://web.archive.org/web/20231115220243/https://books.google.com/books?id=MEsNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Deming+Jarves&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjH6oqggMeCAxX-E1kFHeXuCHYQ6AF6BAgLEAI#v=onepage&q=Deming%20Jarves&f=false live Kapsch Robert J. Annual Report 1990 - Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record U.S. Department of the Interior - National Park Service 1990 Washington, D.C. https://books.google.com/books?id=HO5OAAAAMAAJ&dq=first+continuous+tank+window+glass+Jeanette&pg=PA44 11635462 2024-02-22 2024-01-25 https://web.archive.org/web/20240125220147/https://books.google.com/books?id=HO5OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=first+continuous+tank+window+glass+Jeanette&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwltWZtfmDAxWIMVkFHYf1CMEQ6AF6BAgKEAI#v=onepage&q=first%20continuous%20tank%20window%20glass%20Jeanette&f=false live Knittle Rhea Mansfield Early American Glass The Century Co. New York, New York 2009 1927 978-1-4047-5385-3 1811743 https://books.google.com/books?id=eP89AAAAYAAJ&q=Early+American+Glass 2023-08-03 2023-07-19 https://web.archive.org/web/20230719144414/https://books.google.com/books?id=eP89AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Early+American+Glass&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwitvMqaiIeAAxUDKFkFHZu0DpUQ6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&q=Early%20American%20Glass&f=false live Linton Robert May 1917 Window Glass by Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=nV4iAQAAMAAJ&dq=John+H.+Lubbers+machine&pg=RA1-PA8359 Easton, Pennsylvania Compressed Air Magazine Company Compressed Air Magazine xxii 5 8359–8364 1564586 January 24, 2024 January 24, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240124201658/https://books.google.com/books?id=nV4iAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA8359&lpg=RA1-PA8359&dq=John+H.+Lubbers+machine&source=bl&ots=ADhVF7MyMN&sig=ACfU3U2SOSzyzYCztin30Dg3DAnFqmbhIw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiUiM655vaDAxUJEFkFHVPKClE4MhDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=John%20H.%20Lubbers%20machine&f=false live MacLeod Christine October 1987 Accident or Design? George Ravenscroft's Patent and the Invention of Lead-Crystal Glass https://www.jstor.org/stable/3105182 Technology and Culture 28 4 776–803 10.2307/3105182 3105182 March 9, 2024 March 9, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240309180307/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106182 live subscription Madarasz Anne Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center Glass: Shattering Notions Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania 1998 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 39921461 978-0-93634-001-2 McKearin Georghe S. McKearin Helen American Glass Crown Publishers 1966 New York City 1049801744 North S. N. D. United States Census Office Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900 - Manufactures Part III U.S. Government Printing Office 1902 Washington, District of Columbia https://books.google.com/books?id=oMBNAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22Marsh+Plate+Glass%22&pg=PA962 January 27, 2024 227718 January 27, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240127172328/https://books.google.com/books?id=oMBNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA962&dq=%22Marsh+Plate+Glass%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiNyueJiP6DAxWUD1kFHfR8CYoQ6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=%22Marsh%20Plate%20Glass%22&f=false live Palmer Arlene 1979 American Heroes in Glass: The Bakewell Sulphide Portraits https://www.jstor.org/stable/1594129 Chicago, Illinois University of Chicago Press, Smithsonian American Art Museum American Art Journal 11 1 4–26 10.2307/1594129 1594129 February 17, 2024 February 24, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230224050127/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1594129 live subscription Palmer Arlene 1979a A Philadelphia Glasshouse, 1794–1797 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190039 Corning, New York Corning Museum of Glass Journal of Glass Studies 21 102–114 24190039 November 29, 2023 December 4, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231204222304/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190039 live Revi Albert Christian American Pressed Glass and Figure Bottles Nelson 1964 New York 965803 Rice Richard R. The Mineral Production of Pennsylvania for the Year 1913 William Stanley Ray, State Printer 1915 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania https://books.google.com/books?id=2A8tAAAAIAAJ&dq=Tondeur+rod+lehr&pg=RA1-PA126-IA3 January 25, 2024 2253577 January 25, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240125201658/https://books.google.com/books?id=2A8tAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA126-IA3&lpg=RA1-PA126-IA3&dq=Tondeur+rod+lehr&source=bl&ots=q1XMrSOjwL&sig=ACfU3U3wFsmDyCmMgC507ZHcQ1XN2oexQA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwituMLgpvmDAxW2F1kFHU20BcAQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Tondeur%20rod%20lehr&f=false live Scoville Warren C. September 1944 Growth of the American Glass Industry to 1880 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826160 Journal of Political Economy 52 3 193–216 10.1086/256182 1826160 154003064 November 2, 2023 November 13, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231113122457/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826160 live subscription Shively R.R. September 1924 Principles of Glass Making – Use of Selenium in Glass https://books.google.com/books?id=i2TX1z4mzAEC&dq=Nicholas+Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA371 Newark, New Jersey Ceramics Publishing Company The Ceramist 4 6 371–374 August 25, 2023 January 24, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240124194101/https://books.google.com/books?id=i2TX1z4mzAEC&dq=Nicholas+Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA371 live Shotwell David J. Glass A to Z Krause Publications 2002 Iola, Wisconsin 638 440702171 978-0-87349-385-7 registration https://archive.org/details/glasstoz00davi/page/638 Skrabec Quentin R. Michael Owens and the Glass Industry Pelican Publishing 2007 Gretna, Louisiana 1356375205 978-1-45560-883-6 Skrabec Quentin R. Glass in Northwest Ohio Arcadia 2007a Charleston, South Carolina 124093123 978-0-73855-111-1 Skrabec Quentin R. Edward Drummond Libbey, American Glassmaker McFarland 2011 Jefferson, North Carolina 753968484 978-0-78648-548-2 Tillotson E. Ward December 1920 Modern Glass-Making – Putting the Glass Industry on a Scientific Basis https://books.google.com/books?id=x-AzU5Nx7UEC&dq=Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA354 New York City Scientific American Publishing Company Scientific American Monthly II 4 351–354 August 25, 2023 November 17, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20231117155535/https://books.google.com/books?id=x-AzU5Nx7UEC&dq=Kopp+ruby+glass&pg=PA354 live Unlisted January 1913 The Present Status of the Window Glass Industry https://books.google.com/books?id=9jJOAAAAYAAJ&q=Hartford+City+Glass+American+Window&pg=PA81 Easton, Pennsylvania American Chemical Society The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry V 1 80–81 January 24, 2024 March 3, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240303182430/https://books.google.com/books?id=9jJOAAAAYAAJ&q=Hartford+City+Glass+American+Window&pg=PA81#v=snippet&q=Hartford%20City%20Glass%20American%20Window&f=false#v=snippet&q=Hartford%20City%20Glass%20American%20Window&f=false live Unlisted April 1917 The Window Glass Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=nPpYAAAAYAAJ&dq=John+H.+Lubbers+machine+National+Glass+Budget+1917&pg=RA52-PA1 Pittsburg, Pennsylvania National Glass Budget 32 49 1 January 24, 2024 January 24, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240124204211/https://books.google.com/books?id=nPpYAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA52-PA1&dq=John+H.+Lubbers+machine+National+Glass+Budget+1917&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwislabI8PaDAxXMEVkFHTceDK8Q6AF6BAgKEAI#v=onepage&q=John%20H.%20Lubbers%20machine%20National%20Glass%20Budget%201917&f=false live Weeks Joseph D. United States Census Office Report on the Manufacture of Glass U.S. Government Printing Office 1884 Washington, District of Columbia https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot0nAAAAYAAJ&q=report+on+the+manufacture+of+glass June 26, 2023 2123984 July 16, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230716182017/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot0nAAAAYAAJ&q=report+on+the+manufacture+of+glass live Wilson Joseph M. Wahl William H. March 1894 Shuman's Process and Apparatus for Embedding Wire Netting in Glass https://books.google.com/books?id=HWBDAAAAYAAJ&q=Shuman&pg=PA161 Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts CXXXVII 3 161–175 January 24, 2024 January 24, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240124215113/https://books.google.com/books?id=HWBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&dq=Shuman%E2%80%99s+Process+and+Apparatus+for+Embedding+Glass,%E2%80%9D+The+Journal+of+the+Franklin+Institute:+Devoted+to+Science+and+the+Mechanic+Arts&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjxvcKP__aDAxWUFlkFHeC3B1EQ6AF6BAgLEAI#v=onepage&q=Shuman&f=false live Wilson Kenneth M. 2001 Plate Glass in America: A Brief History https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190904 Journal of Glass Studies 43 141–153 24190904 January 22, 2024 January 22, 2024 https://web.archive.org/web/20240122214435/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190904 live Zerwick Chloe A Short History of Glass H.N. Abrams in association with the Corning Museum of Glass 1990 New York 112 20220721 978-0-81093-801-4 Category:History of glass Category:Cultural history of the United States