1993 Eritrean independence referendum

none November 2022 Eritrea 1993 23–25 April 1993 Do you approve that Eritrea should become an independent sovereign state? 1,100,260 1,822 328 1,173,706 thumb|Sign commemorating the referendum An independence referendum was held in Eritrea, at the time part of Ethiopia, between 23 and 25 April 1993. The result was 99.83% in favour, with a turnout in excess of 98%.Elections in Eritrea http://africanelections.tripod.com/er.html African Elections Database https://web.archive.org/web/20260307215422/http://africanelections.tripod.com/er.html 7 March 2026 23 January 2011 deadThibaut Bernhard Eritrea Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook 1999 367–372 10.1093/0198296452.003.0019 https://academic.oup.com/book/42009/chapter-abstract/355593660 Dieter Nohlen Bernard Thibaut Michael Krennerich Independence from Ethiopia was declared on 27 April 1993. History Eritrean War of Independence (1961-1991) Eritrea had come under Italian colonial rule in 1890,Hussien Seifudein A. The conflict in Eritrea reconsidered Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 1998 18 1 159–168 10.1080/13602009808716399 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13602009808716399 11 June 2026 subscription 159 and remained an Italian colony until the end of World War II. After the war, Italy relinquished their claims to Eritrea, with the British taking over its administration. In 1950, the United Nations voted to combine Eritrea with the independent nation of Ethiopia. The resulting country, the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea, was intended to be a federation that retained some Eritrean autonomy. However, by 1962, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie had eliminated this autonomy and integrated Eritrea as a province within Ethiopia.Selassie Bereket H. Creating a Constitution for Eritrea Journal of Democracy 1998 9 2 164–174 10.1353/jod.1998.0031 https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/16884 11 June 2026 subscription 166-167Pool David Eritrean Independence: The Legacy of the Derg and the Politics of Reconstruction African Affairs 1993 92 368 389–402 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098641 https://www.jstor.org/stable/723289 11 June 2026 0001-9909391 The loss of autonomy, including military occupation of Eritrea by Ethiopian forces, led to a long-term armed rebellion beginning in the early 1960s. The idea of an independence referendum had first been proposed by the EPLF in 1981. After thirty years, the Eritrean War of Independence ended in May 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPFL) defeated Ethiopian forces to end the military occupation of Eritrea. The EPLF hoped to demonstrate a popular mandate for independence in addition to the military victory. They scheduled a referendum on Eritrean independence for 1993, providing enough time for a well-organized and internationally-verified referendum. The referendum gained international support internationally, including from the United States.163,165164,167 Moving from de re to de jure independence (1991-1993) Shortly after the EPFL gained control of the Eritrean capital city of Asmara in May 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front gained control of the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, leading to the fall of its ruling Derg regime. The new Ethiopian government had been an ally of the EPFL during the Ethiopian Civil War, as part of a broad coalition of rebel groups across Ethiopia.390Henze Paul "The Defeat of the Derg and the Establishment of New Governments in Ethiopia and Eritrea" Rand Report No. P-7766 1992 Santa Monica https://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P7766.html9-12,18-21 Representatives of the transitional governments of Ethiopia and Eritrea met twice, in London in May and in Addis Ababa in July, to discuss the future status of Eritrea, including the referendum. In May 1992, the transitional governments presented a plan for the referendum process, to begin in July 1992 and end in April 1993. They requested a United Nations delegation to observe and verify the referendum.United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea: Report of the Secretary-General 11 August 1993 United Nations https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/197315?ln=en&v=pdf 13 June 2026 en3-4 Referendum International observation The United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea (UNOVER) was established pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 47/114 of 16 December 1992 and lasted until 25 April 1993.Eritrea: Birth of a Nation http://www.dehai.org/conflict/history/birth_of_a_nation.htm 2006-09-15 28 October 2015 https://web.archive.org/web/20151028081806/http://www.dehai.org/conflict/history/birth_of_a_nation.htm live Government of Eritrea The goals of UNOVER were "to observe and to verify the freedom, fairness and impartiality of the entire referendum process". UNOVER observers noted that the political situation in Eritrea ahead of the referendum was surprisingly calm and stable. In total, approximately 100 observers participated in the UNOVER mission.3,5 Election observers were also present from the Organization of African Unity, European Community, League of Arab States, and non-aligned countries. A further 2,000 Eritrean observers helped ensure that the voting process was perceived as fair to Eritreans.16 Process Voter registration for the referendum ran from October 1992 to March 1993. In this time, 1.1 million people were registered to vote, out of an estimated 1.5-1.75 million eligible voters. 860,000 of them were located within Eritrea, with the remainder comprising the Eritrean diaspora in Sudan, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia and other countries. All Eritreans over the age of 18 years were eligible to vote in the referendum.7-8 A campaign period was held from February to April 1993, immediately ahead of the referendum. Three groups registered to campaign for independence and none registered to campaign against it. This period was accompanied by a civic education campaign about the referendum, including printed voting instructions and posters, and media outreach. Approximately 6,000 polling officials were trained to administer the 1,012 voting stations throughout the country. Voting stations within Eritrea were open from 23 to 25 April, and international voting took place from 16 to 25 April, depending on the country.9-12,15 The referendum was completed under budget, and was considered free and fair by UNOVER and other observers. Provisional results were announced on 27 April, two days after voting ended. The initial results showed a 99.8% approval of independence with 98.2% of registered voters voting. The United Nations added Eritrea as a member on 28 May 1993.12,17-18 Aftermath Consequences of the delayed referendum The two-year delay between the practical independence of Eritrea and its official independence had some negative economic consequences, as Eritrea's unclear status limited its ability to obtain international economic aid. EPLF fighters were expected to remain in the army without pay during the pre-referendum period, and were not able to perform other work. However, the delay also allowed time to resolve some contentious issues related to independence, including Eritrean citizenship law and the status of Ethiopians living in Eritrea.392-393 Despite these efforts, relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia quickly strained under the weight of unresolved issues. These issues contributed to a second war between Eritrea and Ethiopia that lasted from 1998 to 2000.Tesfai Alemseged The Cause of the Eritrean-Ethiopian Border Conflict http://www.dehai.org/conflict/analysis/alemsghed1.html www.dehai.org 13 June 2026Reid Richard Caught in the Headlights of History: Eritrea, the EPLF and the Post-War Nation-State The Journal of Modern African Studies 2005 43 3 467–488 https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876064 0022-278X 13 June 2026468 Post-independence governance Despite the transparency of the independence referendum, democratic rule in Eritrea quickly tapered off. Isaias Afwerki, as the leader of the EPLF, assumed the presidency of Eritrea. He has not held an election since, and Eritrea has become a dictatorship.Lynch Tiffany The Country That's Never Had an Election https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/11/06/the-country-thats-never-had-an-election/ Foreign Policy 13 June 2026 6 November 2013 A constitution was drafted for Eritrea in 1997, but it was never implemented.Eritrea President Isaias Afwerki 'both charismatic and brutal' https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44824682 BBC News 16 June 2026 13 July 2018 Afwerki rules the country without a parliament or independent judiciary, and human rights abuses are rampant, including the arrests and imprisonment of a swath of journalists, student protestors, and reformers beginning in 2001.Escalating Crackdown in Eritrea Human Rights Watch https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/09/20/escalating-crackdown-eritrea Human Rights Watch 16 June 2026 en 20 September 2001Plaut Martin Eritrea’s Isaias Afwerki: a tactical authoritarian who might be president for life https://theconversation.com/eritreas-isaias-afwerki-a-tactical-authoritarian-who-might-be-president-for-life-147963 The Conversation 16 June 2026 25 October 2020 International consequences Some scholars anticipated that the positive international reception of the Eritrean independence would destabilize other African countries. The Organization of African Unity (or, since 2002, the African Union) had previously treated African countries' borders as settled, despite the fact that had been chosen more for colonial purposes than as reflections of African self-determination. One African state gaining independence from another with the approval of the OAU meant that these borders were no longer sacrosanct.166Clapham Christopher Eritrean independence and the collapse of Ethiopian centralism: Causes, consequences, and implications Geopolitics and International Boundaries 1996 1 2 115–129 10.1080/13629379608407562 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629379608407562 11 June 2026 subscription However, South Sudan is the only country to have gained internationally-recognized independence within Africa since 1993. Results 1100260 1822 328 1173706 http://africanelections.tripod.com/er.html African Elections Database By area AreaForAgainstInvalidTotalVotes%Votes%Asmara128,44399.891440.1133128,620Barka44,42599.89470.11044,472Denkalia25,90799.65910.352926,027Gash-Setit73,23699.632700.37073,506Hamasien76,65499.92590.08376,716Akkele Guzay92,46599.841470.162292,634Sahel51,01599.721410.283151,187Semhar33,59699.661130.344133,750Seraye124,72599.94720.0612124,809Senhit78,51399.97260.03178,540Freedom fighters77,51299.97210.034677,579Sudan153,70699.773520.230154,058Ethiopia57,46699.652040.353657,706Other82,59799.841350.167482,806Total1,100,26099.831,8220.173281,102,410Source: Eritrea: Birth of a Nation See also Eritrean War of Independence References Independence Eritrea Eritrea Category:Referendums in Eritrea Eritrea