1946 Egyptian protests

Wave of demonstrations and strikes in post-war Egypt 1946 protests in Egypt 1946 2 9 – 1946 3 04 Egypt Egyptian nationalism Removal of British troops in Egypt * Removal of all British forces to the Suez Canal Resumption of Anglo-Egyptian negotiations Wafd Party British Government Muslim Brotherhood Participated in the march after the Abbas Bridge incident on 9 February and in another march on the 11th. al-Banna was against the brothers joining in on the 21 February march, though many did participate.Mitchell 1969 45 Following the 4 March rally, the Brotherhood withdrew all support for the strikes.Mitchell 1969 47Abdalla 1985 74 Egyptian government Young Egypt Party DMNL Numerous student and worker organizations Fouad Serageddin Henri Curiel Salama Moussa Ahmed Hussein King Farouk Mahmoud El Nokrashy Ismail Sidky Hundreds Around 30 In early 1946, protests by students and workers erupted throughout Egypt. Motivated by Egyptian nationalism and anti-colonialism, they resulted in the retreat of British troops in Egypt from the main delta to the Suez Canal. The protests are most known for the Abbas Bridge Incident, where protesters were thrown into the River Nile after the police raised the sides of a drawbridge. They resulted the resignation of prime minister Mahmoud el Nokrashy and a draft treaty between Egyptian prime minister Ismail Sidky and British foreign minister Ernest Bevin, though the failure of this draft led to Sidky's resignation later on that year. Historical Context British control of Egypt was firmly established following the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War. After the 1919 Egyptian revolution, a delegation - Wafd in Arabic - of Egyptian nationalists formed to negotiate with the British government over the question of Egyptian independence. This began a decades long political struggle between Egyptian nationalists and British officials, specifically over the issues of British troop presence and the status of the Suez Canal and Sudan.For an overview of this early period of Egyptian-British negotiations, see Gifford, Jayne (2019) Britain in Egypt: Egyptian Nationalism and Imperial Strategy, 1919-1931. I.B. Tauris. During the interwar period, mainstream Egyptian politics was divided between the British, the conservative monarchy, the Wafd party. In 1936, the British and Egyptian governments signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty. The treaty raised the number of British forces in the canal from 8,000 to 10,000, authorized British troops in and near Alexandria for eight years as well other provisions further legitimizing British military and political control in Egypt.Eden Anthony El-Nahas Moustapha 1952 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance, 1936 https://www.jstor.org/stable/45309424 Current History 22 128 231–239 45309424 0011-3530 While the Wafd party did believe in Egyptian nationalism, it was also fiercely against fascism, leading to a brief British-Wafd alliance during World War II. This culminated in the 1942 Abdeen Palace Incident, when British forces nearly overthrew King Farouk unless he appointed the leader of the Wafd, Mustafa al-Nahhas, prime minister. This incident greatly damaged the Wafd's credibility among the Egyptian masses. Nahhas would govern the country until his dismissal in 1944, when the Axis threat to Egypt was no longer present. The Wafd boycotted the 1945 Egyptian parliamentary election, leading to a victory of minor opposition parties. The new prime minister Ahmed Maher brought Egypt into the war on 24 February 1945 in order to give Egypt a seat at the post-war peace conference. He was assassinated by an fanatic Egyptian nationalist for this supposed 'capitulation to British pressure'.Doran 1999 14–15 While mainstream Egyptian politics was dominated by the political wrestling match between King Farouk and the Wafd party, they were not the only players on the scene. Though the Wafd party was the most popular, the king could rely on support from anti-Wafd opposition parties, such as the new prime minister Mahmoud El Nokrashy's Saadist Institutional Party and Ismail Sidky's 'People's Party'. Further to the right were the Islamist Hasan al-Banna's Muslim Brotherhood and nationalist Ahmed Hussein's Young Egypt. While these parties never officially had any seats in parliament, they could marshal support from the rural masses and nationalist urban middle class. On the left were numerous socialists organizations. The first Egyptian Communist Party was crushed by the Wafd in 1924, yet by the end of World War II, Egyptian leftists came back under the banner of Henri Curiel's DMNL, Hillel Schwartz's Iskra and Fu'ad Morsi's new Egyptian Communist Party. Inside the Wafd, a left wing faction called the 'Wafdist Vanguard' faction emerged. The Wafdist old guard was dealt a severe blow following the departure of Makram Ebied in 1943. Ebied created the splinter party the Wafdist Bloc', and after exposing al-Nahhas' corruption in his Black Book, joined el Nokrashy's cabinet. The end of the war in 1945 also meant an end to martial law, making way for these forces to fight for the future Egypt.Erlich 1989 141–145 "The Wafd, the Communists and the Students" The Wafd sought to unseat prime minister Mahmoud el Nokrashy's government by organizing student demonstrations at the start of the 1945/46 school year. In August 1945, the Wafdist Fouad Serageddin along with Hasan al-Banna and Ahmed Hussein created the Preparatory Committee of the National Committee of Students'. This organization had representatives from both rightist and leftist students as well as contacts in the trade unions. The government sought to weaken the committee by flipping Hasan al-Banna. After a meeting with Ali Maher, al-Banna urged his followers against demonstrations.Erlich 1989 149 While some joined the left, the majority followed his advice. On October 6th, al-Banna received enough funds from the Interior Ministry to set up headquarters in Cairo. On the same day, thousands of students demonstrated against the British, while the Brotherhood urged students not to join them. On the next day, students called for a general conference to renew Anglo-Egyptian negotiations and establishing National Committees in universities throughout the country. On the campus of Cairo University, they adopted three resolutions: "The struggle for national independence is not only a struggle against military occupation, but is also a struggle against colonial domination of economic, political and cultural aspects of Egyptian society." "Local oligarchs are the local partners of the colonial power and should accordingly be treated as enemies of Egypt." "The only way to fight colonialism is a unified front between all anti-colonial powers"Abdel Ghafar 2017 42 The Brotherhood created their own memorandum instead to be submitted to the government.Abdalla 1985 63 This split led to a shuffling of the organization; with the departure of the Brotherhood the committee rename itself to 'The Higher Executive Committee of the Students'.Erlich 1989 148–151 "Eruptions and the End of the Ancien Régime: First Eruption—tentative" el Nokrashy exploited the political divisions between the Wafd and the Brotherhood to protect his government. During the Balfour Day riots on 2 November, he instructed the police not use firearms against the looters.Tripp 1998 78 These riots indicated that al-Banna did not have full control over his movement, as the rioters clashed with police despite his orders.Erlich 1989 151 The student movement was briefly weakened due to infighting between the Brotherhood and Young Egypt, who was now aligned with the leftist Wafdists.Erlich 1989 152 Around the same time, a strike in Shubra El Kheima gave the government an opportunity to arrest communists in the first week of January 1946.Beinin Lockman 1988 335–340 The 1936 treaty was signed in the lead up period of World War II. Egyptian nationalists questioned as to whether it was appropriate for the post-war geopolitical circumstances. They argued that the values laid out in the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration by the United Nations laid the legal foundations of complete Egyptian independence.Doran 1999 15 Under intense pressure from Egyptian nationalists, prime minister Mahmoud el Nokrashy sent a note the British government on 20 December 1945, stating the end of the war had rendered British troop presence in Egypt pointless and harmful to relations between Egypt and Britain. The British government responded on 26 January 1946, agreeing to a review of the treaty but not intending to remove Egypt from its sphere of influence.The texts of the Egyptian note and the British reply can be found in J. C. Hurewitz, ed., Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East: A Documentary Record, 1914–1956, vol. 2 (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1956), doc. 79, pp. 259–261, “Egyptian and British Views on Revision of the 1936 Treaty, 20 December 1945–26 January 1946.” This reply caused an explosion of nationalist anger, with the old nationalist cry of 'No Negotiation Except After Evacuation!" returning to the street.Erlich 1989 152 Students from al-Azhar went on hunger strike. The Young Muslim Men's Association held a meeting at its headquarters to organize a march on 9 February. The plan was to submit a memorandum to the palace calling for breaking negotiations, revocation of the 1936 treaty and refusal for Egypt to sign a military agreement with Britain.Abdalla 1985 64 Events On 9 February 1946, six thousand students marched from Cairo University's Giza campus across the Abbas bridge in Cairo. The police tried to stop them by raising both halves of the bridge, which were then lowered by the students. When the demonstration continued, the police raised it again, throwing students into the Nile.The historian Abd al-Rahman al-Rafai claims that 84 were injured in the bridge incident but no one was killed.Abdalla 1985 64 For the next three days, students clashed with police. After a Sudanese student - Muhammad Ali Muhammad - was killed, the police battled students trying to hold a funeral at the Faculty of Medicine.Abdalla 1985 64 In total, three students died and 170 were wounded.Erlich 1989 152 King Farouk was supposed to visit a ceremony for the opening of new dormitories on campus on 10 February, but found no students and ruined royal decorations.Abdalla 1985 65 On 13 February, el Nokrashy resigned. King Farouk appointed Ismail Sidky prime minister on the 15th. On the 17th, the student committees issued a national charter calling for the complete removal of British troops from Egyptian soil, the Egypt submitting its case to the UN Security Council and the country 'liberated from economic slavery'.Abdalla 1985 65 On the next day, a meeting of students from Cairo University and al-Azhar met on the latter's campus to form the 'General Union of Students'. They then approached trade unionists and workers to form the National Committee of Workers and Students (NCWS). On the 21st, they called for a general strike, and were answered by another wave of protests. In Cairo, tens of thousands of students and workers marched to center of the capital; the police did not raise the bridge this time. When the leader of Young Egypt, Ahmed Hussein, tried to speak at this rally, he was shouted with cries of "Down with fascism!".https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1946/08/egypt2.htm Egypt's Fight for Freedom Headed by New Leadership Cliff Tony 17 August 1946 The Militant 33 10 7 Tony Cliff Afterwards, they entered Ismailiya SquareNow known as Tahrir Square and confronted British troops. British machine gun fire killed twenty-three and injured 120.Abdalla 1985 67Erlich (1989) puts the figures at no less than 20 deaths and 150 wounded. On 4 March, another violent clash occurred in Alexandria, when protesters pulled down a British flag and attacked a British position leading to more deaths and injuries.Abdalla 1985 68Erlich 1989 155 At Mahalla al-Kubra, 25 thousand workers at the Misr Spinning and Weaving Company went on strike.Beinin Lockman 1988 342 The NCWS was neither sufficiently united politically nor deeply rooted enough among the Egyptian people to carry out simultaneously the tasks of mobilizing and leading both the national and workers’ movements. The political and organizational immaturity of the NCWS leadership prevented it from fully exploiting the enormous political opportunity before it. Beinin & Lockman Workers on the Nile, pg 344 right 40% +Student and Worker Committees, 1945/46Unless otherwise indicted, the source is (Abdalla, 1985) pg 69 Table 4.1NameDate EstablishedPreparatory Committee for the National Committee of StudentsAugust 1945National Committees of Students7 Oct. 1945Preparatory Committee for an Egyptian Trade Union CongressThis was originally the Preparatory Committee for an Egyptian Trade Union Representative to the WFTU Congress founded in early August 1945.Beinin Lockman 1988 331 Its Arabic name is translated in (Abdalla 1985) as the Preparatory Committee for the Confederation of Egyptian Trade Unions. It is not to be confused with the Preparatory Committee for a General Federation of Egyptian Trade Unions, founded on 14 October 1951.Beinin Lockman 1988 40929 Oct. 1945Executive Committee of StudentsThe standing committee of Wafdist students also had the same name.Dec. 1945Higher Executive Committee of StudentsMixed Committee of Students17 Feb. 1946General Union of Students18 Feb. 1946National Committee of Workers and Students17-19 Feb. 1946Nationalist Committee of Students28 Feb. 1946Congress of Egyptian Trade UnionsBeinin Lockman 1988 3451 May 1946 The main body of this movement was the National Committee of Workers and Students (NCWS). This body was composed of both communists and left Wafdists, trade unionists and students across Egypt. This was the organization that lead the marches of 21 February and 4 March and lasted until July. It was criticized by the preparatory committee of Egyptian trade unions for being too centered around students.Abdalla 1985 72 They believed that no decision should be taken without the consent of at least half of the worker members of the NCWS.Beinin Lockman 1988 343–344 The NCWS lacked any level of concrete organization, quickly burning out by July.Botman Selma https://books.google.com/books?id=2ceKg2qrqQ8C The Rise of Egyptian Communism, 1939-1970 1988-08-01 Syracuse University Press 978-0-8156-2443-1 60–64 en Ismail Sidky tried desperately to quell the demonstrators. He met with leading figures in the Muslim Brotherhood, including al-Banna, causing a break in the movement. The Nationalist Committee of Students was a right-wing government sponsored organization designed to fracture the movement from the leftists and Wafdists. They were mainly led by the Muslim Brotherhood and political actors from other groups such as the Liberal Constitutionalists, the Sa'adists and members of the National Party.Also included minor groups like the socialist 'Peasant Party', 'Egypt's Front', and the 'Partisan Arabs'.Abdalla 1985 73 Sidky appointed the minister of education as their government representative. This committee dissolved when the Muslim Brotherhood withdrew after refusing to criticize the government's ongoing negotiations with Britain.Abdalla 1985 73–74 Aftermath thumb|A stamp showing the Egyptian flag rising on the Cairo Citadel in honor of the British withdrawal. The British ambassador, Sir Miles Lampson, was recalled on February 18, replaced by Sir Ronald Campbell.1946 Chronological Summary of Events, Feb. 18-March 3, 1946 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40544884 Chronology of International Events and Documents Royal Institute of International Affairs 2 5 129 40544884 0959-5376 Prime minister Clement Attlee announced on 8 March 1946 the complete evacuation of British forces to the Suez Canal zone. During the summer break, Sidky ordered the arrests of two hundred leftists on 10 July, causing the dissolution of many groups and the closing of many magazines. Leftists such as Salama Musa and Muhammad Mandur were arrested. The National Committee of Workers and Students was banned. The negotiations between the Egyptian and British government lasted from April to October. Sidky demanded as a pre-condition to the British negotiating team in Cairo the announcement of a complete withdrawal from Egypt. British Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin agreed, announcing in the House of Commons their intent to evacuate all troops "under the proper conditions".Doran 1999 35 However, Bevin still insisted for Britain to maintain the right to reoccupy the bases in the event of war. In June, the Egyptians and British delegations came up with the idea of a "Join Defense Board". This would be a committee made up of Egyptians and British representatives to determine whether or not the situation required British forces.The full text of the draft agreement signed on 25 October 1946 is in (Qayyum, 1973, Appendix I: Draft Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and Accompanying Protocols) While a step forward from the 1936 treaty, the opposition still opposed any defensive pact with Britain. This briefly brought the Wafd, Wafdist Bloc, and the Muslim Brotherhood together by September.Doran 1999 33–43 "This new direction found expression at a national congress of the Muslim Brothers which drafted a manifesto demanding that the government break off the negotiations, renounce the 1936 treaty, force the British to withdraw their troops within one year, and refuse to sign any new treaty with the British until after they completed their evacuation and after the consideration of the Egyptian question by the Security Council ... The new policy the Muslim Brothers adopted in September 1946 was yet another reflection of the progressive deterioration of Sidqi Pasha’s strategy of seeking an accommodation with London." Another wave of violent demonstrations in November led to even more injuries and deaths.Abdalla 1985 76Mason 1994 110 The protesters were mostly Wafdist and leftist students fighting against Sidky and brotherhood; one common slogan was: "No Fascism—No Brotherhood—No Trafficking in Religion", leading to brawls between rival student clubs.Abu Sarah 2024 66 After the failure of the Bevin-Sidky agreement, Sidky resigned on 9 December 1946. Mahmoud el-Nokrashy returned to office, sending further notes to the British government and brought Egypt's case to the Security Council.Doran 1999 45Pasha Nuqrashi 1947 Statement of Nuqrashi Pasha, Prime Minister of Egypt, on the Breakdown of Treaty Negotiations with Great Britain, March 3, 1947. (As Quoted in the London Times, March 4, 1947, Page 3) https://www.jstor.org/stable/4321892 Middle East Journal 1 3 320 4321892 0026-3141Attlee Prime Minister 1947 Reply of Prime Minister Attlee in the House of Commons to the Statement of Egyptian Prime Minister Nuqrashi Pasha on the Breaking off of Treaty Negotiations, March 11, 1947. (As Quoted in the London Times, March 12, 1947, Page 4) https://www.jstor.org/stable/4321893 Middle East Journal 1 3 320–321 4321893 0026-3141Bevin Foreign Minister 1947 Statement of Foreign Minister Bevin in the House of Commons on Anglo-Egyptian Relations, May 16, 1947. (As Quoted in Part in the London Times, May 17, 1947, Page 4) https://www.jstor.org/stable/4321894 Middle East Journal 1 3 321 4321894 0026-3141Pasha Nuqrashi 1947 Reply of Nuqrashi Pasha, Prime Minister of Egypt, to British Foreign Minister Bevin's Statement in the House of Commons on Anglo-Egyptian Relations, May 18, 1947. (As Quoted in the London Times, May 19, 1947, Page 4) https://www.jstor.org/stable/4321895 Middle East Journal 1 3 322 4321895 0026-3141 After the return of the Wafd in the 1950 elections, al-Nahhas withdrew Egypt from the 1936 treaty.Gordon Joel 1989 The False Hopes of 1950: The Wafd's Last Hurrah and the Demise of Egypt's Old Order https://www.jstor.org/stable/163074 International Journal of Middle East Studies 21 2 193–214 10.1017/S0020743800032281 163074 0020-7438Gherson 1953 481 A small guerrilla war was fought by Egyptian nationalists, communists and Islamists on the Suez Canal against British control. While Egypt and Britain signed a treaty in 1954, the nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956 sparked the Suez Crisis, resulting in the complete removal of British influence in Egypt. Timeline 7 October 1945: General student conference at Cairo University at the beginning of the 1945/46 school year ending with a petition imploring King Farouk to begin negotiations with Britain 20 December 1945: Prime minister Nokrashy sends an official diplomatic note to the British foreign secretary 5 January 1946: Amin Osman is assassinated 26 January 1946: British reply to the original note infuriates local Egyptians. Muslim Brotherhood students join the Higher Executive Committee, despite Brotherhood officials objections to working with the Wafd and leftists. 9 February 1946: Second semester begins. Six thousand students march across Abbas bridge while the police raise the edges, injuring 84 as students are thrown into the Nile.Abdalla 1985 64 For the next three days, clashes leave three students dead and 170 wounded.Erlich 1989 152 12 February 1946: Cairo university campus closes following a visit by King Farouk and further demonstrations.Abdalla 1985 64 13 February 1946: Nokrashy resigns.Abdalla 1985 64 Ismail Sidky becomes prime minister shortly afterwards.Erlich (1988) puts this date on the 17th, while Abdalla (1985) puts it on the 15th. 17 February 1946: Mixed Committee of Students is formed and issued a national charter, calling for the total evacuation of British forces from the land, water and air of the Nile valley, placing the Egyptian national question before the UN Security Council and the liberation of 'economic slavery'.Erlich 1989 65 18 February 1946: General Union of Students is formed, as well as the National Committee of Workers and Students. The British ambassador is recalled. 21 February 1946: Tens of thousands in Cairo of demonstrators march and clash with British forces, killing between 20Erlich 1989 154-23Abdalla 1985 67 and injuring 120Abdalla 1985 67-150.Erlich 1989 154 4 March 1946: Another rally is held in Alexandria in honor of the victims of the previous march. A British military post is attacked, killing 2 British soldiers and 28 Egyptians and injuring 342.Abdalla 1985 67 7 March 1946: A royal decree from King Farouk is issued to ask prime minister Sidky to appoint an official delegation for negotiations with the British government. The delegation is headed by Sidky and includes Mohammed Hussein Heikal, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Ali Shamsi Pasha, Makram Ebeid, Hafez Afifi Pasha, Ibrahim Abdel Hady Pasha, Aly Maher, Abdel Fattah Yahya Pasha, Hussein Sirri Pasha, and Nokrashy.Sorby 2018 135 8 March 1946: British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced the evacuation of British forces from the Nile valley. 1 May 1946: Shots from students in Alexandria kill two policemen, leading to the university occupied by troops.Mason 1994 110 The Congress of Egyptian Trade Unions is founded. 4 July 1946: British evacuation of the Cairo citadel. 13 July 1946: Seven people are injured and one is killed in a grenade attack on British military police.Mason 1994 107 Summer 1946: Arrests and ban of Egyptian protest leaders and leftists. 25 October 1946: Sidky returns from London to Cairo with a draft treaty. 16 November 1946: Representatives of the Wafd, the Egyptian Students' Committee, Young Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Secondary Schools’ Union and the former office of the General Students’ Executive Committee join to create the National Front of All Students of the Nile Valley to support the complete evacuation of the British forces and a rejection of a military defense pact with Britain. Another wave of violence in the following weeks kill more students and injure hundreds.Abdalla 1985 76 24 November 1946: Six grenades are thrown and pistol shots are fired in Cairo. Three policemen, four soldiers and one army officer are injured.Mason 1994 110 25 November 1946: Medical students in Cairo set fire to two trams, trees and other items. 33 are wounded and three are killed from police gunfire.Mason 1994 110 2 December 1946: Hundreds of students in Asyut demonstrate and throw stones at police who open fire, kill three and injure thirty.Mason 1994 110 8 December 1946: Sidky resigns. Nokrashy replaces him as prime minister. Notes References Sources 2 Abdalla Ahmed https://books.google.com/books?id=uFPoWgTLq0EC The Student Movement and National Politics in Egypt, 1923-1973 Al Saqi Books 1985 9780863561177 1946: The Climax Abdel Ghafar Adel https://books.google.com/books?id=7QoxDQAAQBAJ Egyptians in Revolt: The Political Economy of Labor and Student Mobilizations 1919-2011 Routledge 2017 9781138656109 Abu Sarah Christine-Marie Revolutionary Emotions in Cold War Egypt: Islam, Communism, and Anti-Colonial Protest Bloomsbury Publishing 2024 Beinin Joel https://books.google.com/books?id=WAcSJ0O5kNEC Workers on the Nile: Nationalism, Communism, Islam, and the Egyptian Working Class, 1882-1954 Lockman Zachary LB-Tauris 1988 9780691055060 Joel Beinin Botman Selma Selma Botman https://books.google.com/books?id=2ceKg2qrqQ8C The Rise of Egyptian Communism, 1939-1970 Syracuse University Press 1988 9780815624431 The Historical Development of the Egyptian Communist Movement, 1942-1947 D H. S. 1946 Egypt and Great Britain: The Egyptian Attitude to Treaty Revision The World Today 2 5 215–226 40392167 Doran Michael Michael Scott Doran Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian Power Politics and the Palestine Question Oxford University Press 1999 9780195160086 The Taproot of Egyptian Foreign Policy Erlich Haggai https://books.google.com/books?id=lVGQAgAAQBAJ Students and University in 20th Century Egyptian Politics Routledge 1989 9781135778989 The Rise and Fall of Sidqi, 1945–46: Students and the End of the Ancien Régime Haggai Erlich Kent John Demise of the British Empire in the Middle East: Britain's Responses to Nationalist Movements, 1943-55 Psychology Press 1998 9780714648040 Cohen Michael J. Britain and the Egyptian problem,1945–48 10.4324/9780203044483 Kolinsky Martin Khadduri Majid 1952 The Anglo-Egyptian Controversy Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science in 24 4 82–100 10.2307/1173508 1173508 Majid Khadduri Ginat Rami 2003 The Egyptian Left and the Roots of Neutralism in the Pre-Nasserite Era 3593243 10.1080/1353019032000059063 British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 30 1 5–24 1353-0194 Gherson Randolph 1953 The Anglo-Egyptian Question Middle East Institute 5 4 456–483 4322541 Hahn Peter L. The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War University of North Carolina Press 1991 9780807819425 Commercial Rivalry, Egyptian Nationalism, and Strategic Interests: The United States and Anglo-Egyptian Disputes, 1937-1946 Lerman Eran https://books.google.com/books?id=E4RdzgEACAAJ Britain's Imperial Position in Egypt, 1942-1947: The Politics of National Aspirations and the Emergence of the Post-war Order Sussex Academic Press 2022 1789761352 Louis William Roger Wm. Roger Louis The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945-1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism Oxford University Press 1984 Egypt: British ‘Evacuation’ and the ‘Unity of the Nile Valley’ Mason Michael 1994 Killing Time: The British Army and its Antagonists in Egypt, 1945–1954 https://doi.org/10.1179/072924794791200214 War & Society 12 2 103–126 10.1179/072924794791200214 subscription Mitchell Richard P. https://books.google.com/books?id=uEaE0AEACAAJ The Society of the Muslim Brothers Oxford University Press 1969 Pioppi Daniela 2023 Between Reformism and Revolution: the Muslim Brotherhood and the Student Movement in Egypt in the 1930s and 1940s https://brill.com/view/journals/stma/21/2/article-p168_3.xml Studi Magrebini 21 2 168–187 10.1163/2590034x-20230088 0585-4954 subscription Qayyum Shah Abdul https://archive.org/details/egyptrebornstudy0000unse Egypt Reborn: A Study of Egypt's Freedom Movement, 1945-52 S. Chand Group 1973 9780842605342 Egypt's Demand for Revision of 1936 Treaty: The Sidqi-Bevin Draft Agreement New Dehli Rahman H. A British Defence Problem in the Middle East: The Failure of the 1946 Anglo-Egyptian Negotiations 1994 Ithaca Press Sorby Karol B. Britain's Effort to Continue Its Tutelage of Egypt After the WWII, 1945 – 1947 https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/11200825Asian%20and%20African%20Studies_2_2018_02_K.Sorby_BRITAIN%E2%80%99S%20EFFORT%20TO%20CONTINUE%20ITS%20TUTELAGE%20OF%20EGYPT.pdf Asian and African Studies 27 2 125–142 2018 Tripp Charles Demise of the British Empire in the Middle East: Britain's Responses to Nationalist Movements, 1943-55 Psychology Press 1998 9780714648040 Cohen Michael J. Egypt 1945-52: The Uses of Disorder 10.4324/9780203044483 Kolinsky Martin Charles R. H. Tripp Category:1946 in Egypt Category:Protests in Egypt